

my i.-.'.V'-ii*'' • 'i • 



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II 



rpNVJERSATIONS 



ON 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR; 

EXPLAINING THE 

PRINCIPLES AND RULES OF THE LANGUAGE, 

ILtTTSl^RATEI) BY 

APPROPRIATE EXERCISES ; 

ABRIDGED, AND ADAPTED TO THE USE OF SCEI^OLS, 



BY CHARLES M/INGE^LL. 

' There is no other method of teaching that o^'^\ ^^l o"^ J« ignorant, than by 
means of something already,^^- ^-O'"- Johnson. 

XH*^^ EDITION. 



PHILADELPHIA. 

PUBLISFIED BY H. C. CAREY & I. LEA 
William Brown^ Printer. 

1822, 



\ 



'^v^- 



■A 



Southern district of n£wyork, ss. 

BE IT RKMEMBP:RK,D, That on ihe twenty-seveath day of April, in the forty- 
fifth year of the Independence of the United States of A verica, Charles M. Inger-s 
soil, of the said District, hath deposited in this office the t«tle of a Book, the right 
whereof he claims as author and proprietor, in the word? following, to wit: 
" "Conversations o>. Engrlish Graromar; explai. ing the Principles and Rules of the 
Language, illustrated by Appropriate Exercises; Abridged, and adapted to the Use of 
Schoon, By Charles M. I' gersoll. 'There iS no ofheif method o( teaching that of 
which a*y one is ignorant, than !.y means of something already known,'— Dr. Johnson." 
In conivvmity to the Act of the Congress of the United States, entitled " An Act for 
the encoura^mpnt of Learning, by securing the copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to 
thr- authors^ aw proprietors of such copies, during th&time iherein mentioned." And 

entitled an Act fur the en- 
Charts, and Books, to the 
, J. . <•»,. ^viw. copies, during ihe times therein mentioned, and extend- 
ing the benents thereoitQ ^i^g ^j^j qj- designing, engraving, and «'tching Mstorical and 
other prints." 

G. L. THOMPSON, 
Clerk of the Southern District tf New-TorJc, 




RECOMMENDATIONS. 



? 



The following remarks by Mr. Walsh are taken from "The National • Gazette" of the 

7th St-pt. 1821. 
" Our avocations prevented us from examining, until lately, ' The Conversations on 
English Grammar,' &c. by Charles M. Ingersoll ; a work whi.-h was published not lotig 
/nice at New-York, it appears to us to be superior in the plan and execution, as regards 
1 he purpose fot which n is mainly Hesigncd,— the use of schools,— to any elenieutary 
treatise of English Gi-am'..nar with which we are acquainted. He has chosen the hap- 
piest form and themo'^t efficacious mode of instruct- on ; and would seem, from the sound 
general views presented in his well wiitcea Preface, >o have studied, with the greatest 
£are, the kind and degree of assistance wliich the youthful mind requires in the pursuit 
of abstract knowledge. In his ' Conversa ions,' iht- nature, principles, and rules of 
Englisli Grammar are so unfolded, progresslvely;<hat the learner is assisted by each step 
'*5n every further adv.mce, and all the preliminary ideas necessary ro the comprehen»ion 
of any psrticufav topic, are fixed in his mind as far as is praetieable. 

" Mr, Ingersoll has. without question, sfinilnistered importanf helps, in this volume, 
such as are sufficiently "ipe in understanding to master the subject. The work is a 
<tluable accession to the list of school manuals, and raay be profitably coustilted by 
dultsin every libera} walk of lifb.'' 



We, the undersigned, teachers in the city of Baltimore, having examined " Conversa- 
ions on English Grammar," by Charles M. Ingevsoll, and introduced it into our respec> 
ive schools, beg leave to recommend this work to the attention of parents at.d teachers, 
s one, which, in our o^-iniou, offers many advantages to the lenrner, and to the teacher, 
tot to be found in any other. Indeed, so fully are we couvinced of this fact that we 
eem it our duty to say publicly, that we believe pupils who use this grammar, will ac- 
uire a better knowledge of the subject in two months by studying iwo hours in a day, 
lau is ordinarily obtained in a year. :: 

IRA HILL, 
JAMES F. GOULD, 
WM MOODY, 
A. B. CLEVELAND. 



Many eminent teachers in New-York have introduced this book into their schools. 
The following recommendations exhibit the opinions of some of them. 



J 



^* To Charles M. Ingersoll, Esq. 

*'Dear Sir— I congratulate you and every friend of teaching, on the production of 
your ' Conversations on English Grammar:' such a work was greatly wanted to render 
the acquisition of Grammar easy and attractive, by re;noving, in a plain ano rational 
manner, the veil of mystery i»i which mere rules of the science necessarily leave it < n- 
veloped. You have happily succcpded in rendering English Grammar perpsicuous and 
familiar to the juvenile mind, by giving the rationale of every rule; and the judicious 
arrangement, gi-aduaily proceeding from the elementary to the most abstruse parts, 
enables the learner to comprehend, without difficulty, what is presented at every step of 
bis progress. The recapitulations are admirably adapteJ to this end, while the exercises 
in parsing, accompanying every new acquisition, are calculated to fix them in the mind, 
and confirm and illustrate the rules. Such a plan is entirely new ; I admire its ingenuity, 
and confidently anticipate its iiuiversal adoption in our seminaries of learning. Instead 
of servilely fuilcwing your predecessors, you have struck out a new path, where every 
thing is simple, satisfactory and inviting. Wishing that your work may meet with the 
encouragement it -o well merits. I remain, dear sir, yours sincerely. 

"A. O. STANSBURY." 

"I have examined 'Conversations on English Grammar,' by Charles M. Ingersoll, 
Esq. and fully concur in ihc opinion as given above. 

"HBZEKIAH G. UFFORD, A. M," 

May 21, 1821. 



IV KECOIiI^ENDATIOM^j 



"I have read ' Conversations on English Grammar, by Charles M. IngersoU, Ei(| ' 
and have no hesitation in saying that, in my opinion, it oftiers greater advantages tr 
pupils, who are studying English Grammar, than any other book now in use. 

May 14th, 1821. JOSEPH HOXIE, Philom. Academy.'" 

"In the above opinion I fully concur. JOHN D, HOLBROOK," 



" Charles M. Ingersoll, Esq. 

" Sir — I h«ve examined ' Conversations on English Grammar,' with care, and I am 
happy to say, that I think it better adapted to the purpose intended than any other with 
which I am acquainted. 

" I hfive, for many years, been accustomed to instruct in that bi-anch, and have founds 
in all systems, many difficulties and imperfections; particularly the want of intelligible 
explanation, of regular gradation, and of just adaptation of the subject, to the progies^ 
c.r the pupil; these you have hai)pily fallen" upon tlie true method of obviating. 

" I hope and trust ilial we shall soon find your book in general use, 

"Yours, &c. J. W. KELLOGG." 



*' Messrs. "Wiley and Hai^tcd— I have examined with attention, and with pleasure, 
•Conversations on English tiraramar.Vby Cha«les M Ingersoll, Esq. and have no hesita- 
tion in saying that, in my opinion, it is incomparably the best English Gramniar, for the 
use of schools, that has been laid before the public. I trust thai the faeilitits which it 
offers to young learners, will induce parents who consult their own interest and that of 
tlieir children, and teacheis who intend to do their duty to both, to unite in giving this 
book an immediate introduction into all our schools. 

J. PERRY, 
" Teacher of the Classical and Griiramar School, No. 142 Fulton-street.'* 

New- York, May 14th, 1821. 



The following, by N. H. Carter, Esq. late Professor of Languages in Darimouth Col- 
lege, is an extract from tht Statesman. 

"Mr. Ingersoll hssbrouRht to his subject acle.ir and philosophical mind; an extensive 
and accurate knowledge of the principles of universal grammar, and of iht English 
language in particular ; much ex|)enence in the science on which he has written; and a 
happy faculty of expressing and illustrating his ideas. It would exceed the limits of a 
newspaper j.ai-apraph to enter into a full explanation of his system. Suffice it to say, 
that lif' has, in our opinion, introduced many valuable improvements both in matter and 
manner. He has reversed many parts of the system of grammar, putiing tlie first, last, 
and the last, first, and following the order cf fhe tin ders'un ding, instead of the artificial 
and unnatiiral arrangement which his predecessors have adopted. His investigations 
have stripped the science of many of its technicaliiies, and of much of the mystery »i 
which it has been enveloped; and by relieving the pupil from the severest and most nk- 
some of nil tasks— that of committing to memory what In- does not comprelund, Mr. 
Ingersoll has rendeied the study of grammar at once easy, pleasmg, and profitable. 
Able and experienced instructers have pronounced it to be decidedly the best sj'stem 
which they have met with, and there i-s a prospect uf its coming into general use. On 
the whole, we fully concur in the favourable opinions Which others have expressed, and 
believe it to be a work highly creditable to its au'lior, and worthy of public patronage." 

William ^-'olemai., Esq. editor of the Evening Post, copied the whole article.and said, . 
"As an evidence of our iuquiescence in the above remarks of Mr. Carter, we have re- 
published the above articK: Mr Ing. rsoll, in the course of this work, discovers an ex-*, 
tensive and thorough acquaintance with the English grammarians who have preceded 
him; sometimes ngreeing and sometimes disagreeing with tliem, aud always states his 
reasons in language at once plain and perspicuous." 



" Mr. Charles M. Ingersoll, 
"Sir— I have read with much satisfaciion your ' Conversations on English Grammar.' 
The work contains all that is useful in Murray, Lowth, and other writers on grammar ; 
and the instruction is conveyed on a plan entirely new, and well ".dapted to fix it methodi- 
cally and pei-inanently on the mind. It? introduction into our seminaries of education 
would facilitate the progress of the pupil, and I certainly hope that you may receive the _ 
patronage which the distinguished merits of this work demand. 1 am, sir, your most 
obedient servant. 

J. V, N. YATES, 
"Secretary of State, and ex-officio Superintendent of Common Schools." 
Albany, Sept. 1, 1821. 



_- ■ ji jHn^^**^^ 

Extract of a letter from the Rev. D. Wilkie, Principal of a Classical and English Gram- 
mar School at Quebec, to Thomas Carey, Jun. Bookseller. 
_ -'quebec, August 3d, 1821. 

*' Dear Sir— I have had an opportunity of looking into Mr. Ingersoll's Grammar of the 
Ensrlish Language, and think it a very judicious work. I think it would prove a very 
useful work in families and for private teachers. It seems peculiarly calculated for the 
advantage of those who desire to advance their knowledge of the English Language by 
private study. I am your obedient servant, 

D. WILKIE." 



Letter from Dr. Abercrombie, to the Author. 

" Philadelphia, July 10, 182j(. 
T " Sir— In reply to your favour of the 5th inst requesting my opinion of your recent 
/i)ublication, entitled ' Conversations on English Grammar,' I do not hesitate to express 
'my highest approbation of the mode you have adopted to inculcate that essentially ne- 
^P cessary branch of science. Its novelty will induce attention; and the vei-y lucid and 
■ familiar manner in which you have communicated instruciiop, readers it a work equally 
well calculated for the school and for the closet. Its merit w^ill, I hope, be justly appre- 
ciated, and its use generally adopted. I am, sir, vour ta.o^<- humble serv t. 

' * 3 v > ' . „ j^g ABERCROMBIE." 



Extract from the Montreal Co-^ant, of August 11th, 1821. 
" iirf«fa/zo«— We again introduce the si'^^ct ot Mr. IngersoU's new system of Gram, 
mar, from the firm conyiciion of its -operiority over any other work on the same 
subject." 



The following remarks p-^ ^7 Orville J-. Holley, Esq. of Hudson, N. Y. who is well 
known as a «ch'^''"'' ^^^^ ^^^ *^'* critical accuracy, and extent of learning. 
" We have just h}»- ^ "^^^ system ^ English Gramcriar put into o«r hand» digested 
and arranged b^' ^- M. Ingersyll, F*q- We have read it carefully through, and justice 
to the author ^o 1^** than a deer'sense of the importance of the subject, compels us to 
♦^ sav that « our opinion, it is v*^ best exposition ot the principles of English Grammar 
that we -^'^^e ever seen. It if remarkably clear and simple in its definitions, explana- 
tions- ''"d illustratioiis ; an* << is? therefore, peculiarly well adapted to the capacity and 
w«its of the learner. It «'« arranged in a just and natural method ; for it proceeds from 
the plainest principles t* the most abstruse, byei^syai^d closely connected steps, and 
renders each topic pe^fiectly intelligible before a new one is nitroduccd. It is scarcely 
, less convenient to the instructer, also, than it is advantageous to the pupir; for it saves 
iito the former a va/<^a;nount of trouble and perplexity, which, in Using other systems, he 
h doomed to up^^rgo, in the endeavour to render tlie abstractions of granunar intelli- 
gible, while j/the same time ii furnisher the laf.er with the soundest distinctions and 
■clearest co)^eptions in regard to the nature and offices of words, and the principles of 
?onstruct-yn-" 



fHaving been presented with a system of English Grammar, lately published by 
[ «narles M. IngersoU, and having examined it, I do most cheerfully recommend it to the 
public as being a work better calculated to aid Initructers and assist Youth in the acqui- 
•Uion of English Grammar ihitii any publication now extant with which lam acquaint- 
ed. Its arrangen^ent, combiua'ion. and exercises are such, in my estimation, as place it 
supereminei'tly above any work of the kind now in use. I am pe»"suade<l that it needs 
only to be known to entitle it to the universal patronage of Schools arid Academies 
throughout our country " 
" Ballston Spa, 25th August, 1821. JOHN KELLY." 



+ A 2 



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CONTENTS. 



CONVERSATION 

Page 

I. Introduction. Of Letters, I 

II. Of Syllables and Words, 5 

III. Of Nouns and Verbs, 13 

IV. Cases of Nouqs. Transitive Verbs, - - - 21 

V. Of the Articles, - - - 29 

VI. Of Adjectives, 34 

VII. Of the Participles, 42 

VIII. Of Adverbs, . ^. - . - 47 

IX. Of Pronouns. Of Personal and Adjective 
Pronouns, 53 

'X. Of Relative and Interrogative pronouns, - - 62 

XI. Of Prepositions, - - . 67 

XII. Of Conjunctions and Interjections, . - - 76 
XTII. Of Nouns and Pronoans connected by Conjunc- 
tions, and Nouns and Pvonouns in apposition, - 83 

XIV. Of the Nominative Case Independent. Of de- 
rivation, --. -,_, 87 

XV. Of the Moods and Tenses of Verbs, - - - 94 

XVI. Of the* Subjunctive Mood, - - . - - - 107 

XVII. Of the Potential, Infinitive, and Imperative 
Moods, - - - - - --^ 112 

XVIII. Of ^Passive and N^iter Verbs, - - - - 122 

XIX. Of the Auxiliary Verbs, and of the Tenses, 134 

XX. Of Rules XXI. XXII. XXIII. ----- 146 
yXXI. General Remarks and Exercises in Parsing, - 158 



ADDITIONAL REMARKS. 

SECTION 

I. Of Syntax, Of iVq Nominative and Verb, - - 16d 

II. Of the Posbossive Cwse, 175 

* See also Section XX. 



viii ccw.T.fijKP«^**'H«.„«,^^^^ 

III. Of Transitive verbs, 182 

IV. Of the Articles, 185 

V. Of Adjeetives, 190 

VI. Of the Present or Active Participle, - - - 198 

VII. Of Adverbs, 204 

VIII. Of Pronouns, -- -- 209 

IX. Of Adjective Pronouns, -- 212 

X. Of Relative Pronouns, 218* 

XI. Of Rule XII. ... - 224 

XII. Of Prepositions, ..----.-. 227; 

XIII. Of Rules XIV. and XIX. - - - i - - 234 

XIV. Of Rule XV. - - 237 

XV. Of Nouns and Pronouns in Apposition. Of the 
Infinitive Mood, - - - - - - - - - - 242 

XVI. Of the Infinitive Mood, or part of a Sentence as 

a Nominative. Of the Nomipativatase Absolute, . 246 

/ y 24^7- 

XVII. Of Nouns of Multitude, > - r - - - 248 

XVIII. When a Noun or Pronou/i follows but^ than^ 

or asy - 7 - - - - - - 25 1 

XIX. Of the use of Words ary^ Phrases, which in 
point of time relate to eapii other, . - - - 253 

XX. Of the Subjunctive Mo^d, 263 

XXI. All the parts of a Sen^nce should correspond 

to each other, - - - - ■' - - - - - - '2,7 rs 



PUNCTUATION. 

CHAPTER. 

I. Of the comma, 28^' 

II. Of the Semicolon, -- 287 

III. Of the Colon, 288 

IV. Of the Period, -269 

V. Of the Dash, Notes of Interrogation an^? Excb- 

ination, and the Parenthesis, . . - - - 290 

VI. Of the Apostrophe, Caret, Sec, ----- 293 

VII. Of the proper use of Capitals, - - - - - 295 



r 



ADVERTISEMENT. 



, Those who may have occasion to use Conversations oa 
English Grammar, either entire or abridged, are informed, 
' tha^t the Conversations and Sections On Etymology and 
Syntaa:^ and the chapters on Punctuation^ are, word for 
word, the same in both editions. No confusion, there- 
fore, can arise from using copies of both in the same class, 
if the Conversations, Sections, Sec. be referred to, instead 
of the pages. 

The entire work is full bound, and contains about nine- 
ty pages more than the Abridgment. They are filled with 
remarks on the sounds of the letters, promiscuous exer- 
cises in false Orthography, with Prosody, and the Figures 
of Speech. 

Although the difference in the prices of the two editions, 
is but twenty-five cents a copy, one being a dollar, and the 
other seventy-five cents, yet, as this has been found to be 
an object of consideration with many, particularly with 
those who have large families to supply with grammars, 
both kinds will be constantly kept in the market. 

The demand for a book, how great soever it may be, 
seldom exceeds that anticipated by its author. In remark- 
ing on the favourable reception which has been given to 
Conversations or^ English Grammar, however, the author 
feels himself bound to acknowledge, that the demand which 
has, in a few months, called into actual use eight thousand 
copies of his book, and which, now, calls for a third edi- 
tion, he certainly did not anticipate. 

In preparing an elementary book for children, the prin- 
cipal object of the writer ought to be, the general im- 
provement of the mind. That method of teaching which 
most effectually cultivates all the powers of the mind, 
while it gives a thorough knowledge of a particular sub- 
ject, is undoubtedly the best. 

To excite attention, therefore ; to strengthen the memory, 
by obvious and proper associations, to aid reflection, tp 
call forth the powers of combining and comparing the ob- 
jects presented, and to sharpen and invigorate the reason- 



ADVERTTSfiMEl^.'^--, 



ing faculties of those who use it, were the leading objects 
which the author endeavoured to keep in view in prepar- 
ing this work. 

With what success he has laboured, a discerning and 
impartial public will decide. 

He hopes, and he believes, that pupils who use this 
book, will find the subject of which it treats both easy 
and pleasant; and, that, in their succeeding studies, they 
will long feel the happy effects which this method of teach- 
ing must necessarily produce. 

January, 1822. 



PREFACE. 



In presenting this abridgment of Conversations o^ 
i^NGLisH Grammar to the public, the auihoi* deems it pro- 
sper to give an outline of his arrangement of the subject; 
to endeavour to support the distinctions which he has ad- 
vanced respecting ihe subjunctive mood, by such reason- 
ing, and such authority, as may justify his positions; to 
make a few remarks on the facilities which it offers to 
teachers as well as to learners; and to suggest the advan- 
tages which may be expected to result from this method 
of instruction 

There is perhaps no elementary study in which childrea 

find more difficulty than in that of English Grammar; nor 

. one which they generally pursue vvith less interest. This, 

f it is presumed, arises, not so much from any obscurities 

peculiar to this subject, as from the manner in which it is 

usually presented to the youthful mind. 

A natural and easy gradation in introducing and connect- 
ing the different parts of speech, and in explaining the in- 
flections and properties peculiar to each ; presenting, pro- 
gressively, that oTily which the learner is prepared to un- 
derstand ; and illustrating the rules and principles by ex^ 
amples and practical exercises, in a course of familiar 
Conversations; seemed to the author, to be the method 
best adapted lo remove this difficulty, and to excite atten- 
tion and curiosity in those who are endeavouring to acquire 
a knowledge of the English Grammar. 

The first two Conversauptis, therefore, introduce the 
subject; treat of the number and division of letters, and 
the rules of orthography, as exemplified in the different 
modifications of words. 

The third Conversation commences with Etymology 
and Syntax, and explains the Noun, (the only part of 
speech, except the Interjection, which can be explained 
^vithout a reference to some other,) with its persons, num- 
bers, genders, and the nominative case, together with tb? 
active verb, agreeing with its nominative. 



xii "^"*TH|igg^cn 



The fourth explains the two other cases of nouns, with 
their proper government, and the distinctions of the tran^ 
sitive and intransitive verbs. 

In Ihe fifth, the Articles are introduced; and the pupil 
is now prepared to understand the distinctions, and appro- 
priate uses of this part of speech. 

The sixth introduces the Adjective; remarks on its de- 
grees of comparison, illustrates its use, and office in a sen- 
tence, and offers to the learner all the information respect-' 
ing this part of speechr, necessary to enable him to pars« 
it, and understand its proper application. 

The Participle is selected as the subject of the next 
Conversation; but, as the /2resc?z^ participle only, can be 
completely comprehended at this point of the learner's 
progress, the others are treated separately, and are not 
combined in the parsing exercises contained in this Con- 
versation, but reserved for their proper place, which will 
be found after the Indicative mood and its six tenses have 
been presented ; in explaining which, will necessarily occur 
the opportunity of rendering the distinctive characters of 
the perfect, and compound perfect participles, entirely in- 
telligible. 

The Adverb, which always has its grammatical connex- 
ions with a verb, adjective, participle, or with another 
adveTb, is explained in the eighth. 

In the ninth, the pronouns are given and the personal 
and adjective pronouns particularly explained. 

The tenth continues the explanation of the Pronouns, 
in their respective classes, and treats particularly of the 
relative and interrogative kinds. 

Prepositions are introduced in the eleventh; and. the 
twelfth comprises the Conjunctions and Interjections, and 
prepares the learner for the analysis of cifrtipound sen- 
tences. # 

In these twelve Conversations, the pupil is made ac- 
quainted with all the parts of speech; their different 
offices, properties, connexions and dependencies; except 
the moods and tenses of verbs; and by means of the exer- 
cises in parsing, which are annexed to each Conversation, 
he is enabled, with the e;xception just mentioned, to parse 
them^with accuracy and despatch. Additional remarks 
are also subjoined, which each Conversation prepares the 
learner to read with intelligence and pleasure; becaiise he 
can understand them. A series of questions refen ing to 
the preceding Conversation, immediately follows the re- 



PREFACE. XUl 

marks; to answer these the learner is compelled to study 
with attention and to condense the subject-matter, in or- 
der to give his own explanations, instead of reciting a con- 
fused multitude of words, without annexing corresponding 
ideas to what he repeats. 

The thirteenth and fourteenth Conversations are occu- 
pied in explaining several connexions and rules, which 
could not have been presented before; and a few pages are 
taken up on- the subject of derivation. 

The fifteenth Conversation commences with an expla- 
nation of the moods and tenses of the verbs; explains the 
general distinctions of each to a limited extent, and dwells 
particularly on the indicative, as a means of readily com- 
prehending the others. 

The sixteenth gives an exposition of the subjunctive 
mood; and the seventeenth exhibits with appropriate ex- 
planations and rules, the potential, infinitive, and impera- 
tive moods. 

The eighteenth Conversation gives a more extended 
definition of the verb than was given in the former Con- 
versations ; and explains at large the active, passive, and 
neuter verbs. At this stage of advancement, there is little 
difficulty in the pupil's understanding the passive and 
neuter verbs; and the moods and tenses, as applicable to 
these, are already understood. 

Conversation nineteenth treats of the auxiliary verbs, 
and contains all the remarks on the proper use of the dif- 
ferent tenses, that are thought to be necessary. These 
remarks on the tenses are necessarily more difficult to be 
understood, by a learner, than any others relating to the 
subject of Grammar; these, therefore, as the reflecting 
reader must perceive, could not have been introduced 
sooner, witiiout an obvious departure from the plan which 
the author has adopted. 

The twentieth Conversation explains the principles, 
and the application of the XXI. XXII. and XXlII. rules, 
which, with those before given, will be found sufficient for 
the parsing of any regular construction in the English lan- 
guage. 

The twenty -first and last Conversation, contains a few 
critical and general remarks, and concludes with exlrcises 
in parsing. ^ 

After this, the form of Conversation is dropped, and the 
remaining instructions are divided into Sections, in which 
ail the rules are recapitulated, accompanied with general 

tB 



XIV PREFACK 

remarks on the structure of the language ; and appcndec 
to each Section, are appropriate exercises in false syntax, 
which will serve also as a continued series of exercises in 
parsing. 

These exercises have been taken from Mr. Hurray's 
book of exercises, which afforded as good a collection as 
could be found; and the notes which accompany them, with 
such alterations only as were necessary, have been copied 
from Murray's Grammar ; and, throughout the work, 
whatever has been found convenient and unexceptionable, 
has been taken from this excellent writer. 

The author now invites the attention of the critical 
reader to a few remarks respecting the subjunctive mood, 
as it is exhibited in this work. Though he has ventured 
to deviate from the beaten path of his predecessors, in 
the conjugation of the verb in this mood, yet he thinks, 
that it is in perfect accordance, not only with the practice 
of the best writers, but also in strict conformity to the 
definition of this mood, as given by the most distinguished 
grammarians. Mr. Lindley Murray, in his remarks on this 
mood, (page 210, oct. cd.) says-— " Some grammarians 
think it extends only to what is called the present tense 
of verbs generally, under the circumstances of contin- 
gency and futurity ; and to the imperfect tense of the verb 
to bey when it denotes contingency, &c.: because in these 
tenses only, the form of the verb admits of variation ; and 
they suppose that it is variation merely which constitutes 
the distinction of moods. It is the opinion of other gram- 
marians, (in which opinion, says he, we concur,) that, be- 
sides the two cases just mentioned, all verbs in the three 
past, and the two future tenses, are in the subjunctive mood, 
when they denote contingency or uncertainty, though they 
have not any change of termination; and that, when contin- 
gency is not signified, the verb, through all these five 
tenses, belongs to the indicative mood, whatever conjunc- 
tion may attend it. They think, that the definition and 
nature of the subjunctive mood, have no reference to change 
of termination^ but that they refer merely to the manner of 
the beings action^ or fiassion^ signified by the -verb ; and that 
the subjunctive mood may as /irofierly exist without a va- 
riatimt of the verby as the infinitive mood, which has no 
terminations different from those of the indicative." 

In this opinion the author of this treatise also concurs. 
But, if " the definition and nature of the subjunctive mood, 
have no reference to change of termination," how can 



PKEJ'ACE. XV 

Mr. Murra}', aiMbther grammarians, with whbm he " con- 
curs in this opinion," say, that, in the phrase, " If he 
studies," the verb may not be considered as in the sub- 
junctive mood, with as much propriety, as in the phrase, 
" If he study ?" Or with what reason or consistency can 
they say, "If thou remainedst," "If he remained,'* are 
subjunctive; but, " If thou wast," " If he was," cannot be 
subjunctive, but that they are always indicative ? 

In presenting the difierent opinions of grammarians con- 
cerning this mood, Mr. Murray further observes, in a 
note, page 211 : " Wc may add a Fourth opinion; which 
appears to possess, at least, much plausibility. This opi- 
nion admits the arrangement we have given, with one va- 
riation, namely, that of assigning to the first tense of the 
subjunctive, two forms: 1st, that which simply denotes 
contingency: as, "If he desires \X^ I will perform the ope- 
ration;" that is, " if he nonv desires it ;" 2dly, that which 
denotes both contingency and futurity : as, " If he desire it, 
I will perform the operation;" that is, " If he should here- 
after desire it." "This last theory of the subjunctive 
mood, claims the merit of rendering^the whole system of 
the moods consistent and regular; of being more conform- 
able than any other, to the definition of the subjunctive; 
and of not referring to the indicative mood, forms of ex- 
pression, which ill accord with its simplicity and nature. 
Perhaps this theory will bear a strict examination." The 
writer of this book believes it will; and this is the manner 
in which he has exhibited the present tense of the sub- 
junctive mood. But he does not think, with Mr. Murray, 
that this alone will render "the whole system of the moods 
consistent and regular." But that, to do this, two forms 
must also be given to the imperfect tense of the neuter 
verb be^ dfid passive verbs, as they may be seen exhibited 
and explained in the following work,^Conversation XVIII. 
page 126; and Section XX. page 263.' 

The method adopted in this work, offers peculiar facili- 
ties to the teacher as well as to the learner. The former 
will here find, that the familiar style of explanatiofi, avoid* 
ing uncommon words, and furnishing very easy examples, 
will save him the necessity of much verbal comment; will 
diminish his labour, by preventing the necessity of reite- 
rated definition; and that it will also prevent much weari- 
ness, and many trials of patience on his part, by the clear 
ideas it will communicate to his scholars. 



The arrangement of the parsing lessons offers an accom- 
modation to the teacher, of which grammars in common 
use are wholly destitute; and in defect of which, many 
teachers entirely defer the applic'ation of principles, tiH 
the whole grammar has been repeatedly committed to 
memory, withoui any obvious design or utility, in the per- 
ception of the learner. But, in this book, he will be un- 
der no necessity to exercise his pupil, for the first time, 
in a maze of intricate constructions. The words and 
phrases, necessary to exemplify every principle progres- 
sively laid down, will be found strictly and exclusively 
adapted to the illusUation of the principles to which they 
are referred; without introducing, in examples designed 
to illustrate a single grammatical relation, long and com- 
plicated phrases, which serve only to involve the relation 
designed to be shown, in such a connexion, that the un- 
practised learner is unable to discern, in the various dis- 
similar members of the sentence, which of them illustrates 
the principle in question. And besides lessening the fa- 
tigues of the teacher, this ariangen»ent, and these lessons^ 
give a positive efficacy to his instructions, and conciliate 
the mind of the pupil to a pursuit in which his efforts are 
encouraged by easiness, and rewarded by success. 

It is sometimes apprehended, that too many flowers may 
be spread in the path of the learner; that toO many helps 
may enfeeble theenergy of his mind ; that too short a course 
may be pointed out to the attainment of knowledge. But 
no man, who retraces the steps of his ascent to any emi- 
nence, either humble or proud, which he may have gain- 
ed, can fail to perceive, that some assistances quickened, 
and some obstacles retarded his progress; that some ra- 
tional volume, or some intelligent mind, cherished his cu- 
riosity and aided hjs diligence; that there may be a direct 
as well as a circuitous route; and, that he might be urged 
on in darkness, or guided in light. The author has ob- 
served too many students struggling onward in doubt, and 
in dread ; too many, in revolt and despair, not to feel some 
commiseration for the youthful sufferers; not to inquire 
why they suffered, and how they might be relieved; not 
to question whether this reluctance and rebellion of the 
will, may not be " the struggle of the understanding, start- 
ing from that to which it is not by nature adapted, and 
travelling in search of something on which it may fix with 
greater satisfaction."* The result of his experience and 

* Dr. Johnson. 



PHEFACE: XVli 



observation, in respect to the proper mode of cultivating 
the human mind, in one depariment of knowledge, is here 
laid before the public. The writer's views have not been 
confined to a mere system of grammar: this is only an in- 
strument of the mind. The fitness of the mind to the 
insirument; the manner in which the theory and the prac- 
tice might be made the intelligible objects of reason; have 
long employed his attention ; and where his arrangement 
has deviated from the order which grammarians commonly 
observe, it has been dictated by reasoning, and much re- 
flection on the subject, and in conformity to the nature of 
mental acquisitions. He has endeavoured always to bear 
in mind the maxim expressed on the face of this book : 
that, " There is no other method of teaching that of which 
any one is ignorant, than by means of something already 
known." He does not, therefore, commence this subject 
with the first definition in the common grammar, that, an 
Article is a word prejixed to a substantive,, Sec. before any 9 
idea of a substantive has been conveyed to the learner's ^ 

mind; and soon after inform him, that an " Objective case |j 

generally follonvs a verb active or a preposition^''' before 
the student has any conception of either. This inverted 
order has a pernicious tendency. It disheartens and stupi- 
fies. But he trusts that, in the progress of instruction, he 
has never forgotten the fitness of his subject, to the state 
of the learner's mind; and he has endeavoured to make 
the labour of study not only profitable, but pleasant; by 
supplying the young student " with easy knowledge, and 
obviating that despondence which quickly prevails, when 
nothing appears but a succession of difficulties, and one 
labour only ceases that another may be imposed." 
New- York, May, 182 1 . 



BiRECTIONS TO TEACHERS, 



As one important object, proposed in this work, is, by 
the peculiar arrangement of the subject-matter, entirely 
to abolish, wherever it is used, the practice of stultifying 
children^ by compelling them to recite, in endless repeti- 
tion, " vv^ords, words, words," without annexing idea fi ; it 
may not be deemed, either impertinent or improper, to 
present, on the face of the book, some directions to those 
who^may happen to use it. The Author believes it will be 
found most advantageous for learners in general, to begin 
at the THIRD CONVERSATION, and return to the two preced- 
ing, on Ottftography, after those on Etymology and Syntax 
are well understood. 

Begin, then, at the third Conversation^ and explain to the 
class, or individual, in a familiar lecture, or conversation, 
the noun, with its two persons, its numbers, its genders, 
and the nominative case as an actory illustrating the re- 
marks by familiar examples, and requiring the pupils also 
to give examples, illustrative of what has been explained ; 
then explain the active verb, and its agreement with the 
actor, or nominative, and give Rule I: "A verb must 
agree," Sec. The learners may then be exercised, a few 
moments, in parsing such sentences as these : Boys play; 
Girls sing ; Men labour ; Man labours ; Rain falls, &c. ; the 
teacher calling their attention to the distinctive form of 
the verb, as singular or plural. By spending twenty or 
thirty minutes in this manner with a class of learners, the 
teacher may prepare them to read the Conversation, which 
must be given for the next day's lesson, with intelligence 
and with pleasure; and they will find no difficulty in pre- 
paring themselves to parse accurately the exercises in the 
Conversation, and answer correctly the questions annexed. 
When the learners are called, the next day, their business 
will not be, to recite a page, without acquiring one idea^ 
but lo fiarse the exercises, and answer the questions. The 
subject-matter of the fourth Conversation, should be ex- 
plained in a similar manner, before the pupils begin to read 
it; they will then proceed in this as in the other. After 



BIRECTIONS TO TEACHERS. XIX 

these two are well understood, the pupils will, doubtless, 
fee able to proceed with the other Conversations, and un- 
derstand them, without previous verbal comment. 

%* If any one should choose to begin at the Jirst Con- 
versation, there can be no great objection; but what re- 
lates to the sounds of the letters, in the entire work^ix would 
be well to omit, or to attend to but fiartially^ till the pupils 
thoroughly understand Etymology and Syntax. •< 



CONVERSATIONS 



ON 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



CONVERSATION I 



OF LETTERS. 
TUTOR.'—GEORGE.— CAROLIJ^E. 

Tutor. I HAVE frequently told you, that, as soon as you 
could read fluently, and understand what you read, I would 
instruct you in ihx3 principles of Grammar. I now find 
that you read your books for the purpose of understand- 
ing them, and that you do not, as many children do, 
merely pronounce the words^ without any regard to the 
sense. 

Caroline. You have so often cautioned us, against the 
practice of reading without trying to comprehend the 
sense of every sentence, that I now find no pleasure in 
reading, unless I thoroughly understand the meaning of 
what 1 read. 

Tutor. I believe so, Caroline, and I have no doubt, 
that your brother George can say the same ; and therefore 
I shall begin to instruct you in English Grammar, this 
morning. And now, George, what do you think that Gram- 
mar is about. 

George. I think it is about words, or language ; and, 
that it will teacli us to speak and write what we mean, in 
such a manner, that others may clearly understand us; 
and, that it will enable us to avoid putting words together 
so that a sentence will convey two or three different 
meanings, when it ought to convey but one. 

Tutor. Very w^ell. Grammar treats of language, and, 
if you understand it well, it will teach you to write and 
speak it correctly. Grammar may be divided into two 
sorts, Universal^dJid Particular. Universal Grammar ex- 
plains the principles which are common to all languages. 

A 



2 (JklHOGRAPHY. 

Particular Grammar applies those general principles to a 
particular language, modifying them according to the ge- 
nius of that language, and the established practice of the 
best speakers and writers by whom it is used. The prac- 
tice of the best speakers and writers of any language, then, 
is thestandard of the grammarof that language. But before 
I say more concerning language^ I must know whether 
you can give the definition of an idea. 

George. An idea is whatever a person has in his mind, 
when he thinks. 

Tutor. Very well. And now, Caroline, do you remem- 
ber the definition of language ? 

Caroline. Language is the expression of our ideas and 
their relations, by certain articulate sounds, which are 
used as the signs of those ideas and relations. 

Tutor. That is right. We must observe now what we 
have under consideration, viz. first, ^/zm^s; secondly, the 
images of those things, in the mind, when we think of 
them, which are called ideas ; and thirdly, language^ 
or articulate sounds, used to express, or to convey, to other 
minds, those ideas which we have in our own. These ar- 
ticulate sounds we call words^ which are used by com- 
mon consent, as the signs of our ideas and their relations. 
So you will perceive, that, unless these words are used 
in such manner and order, as will represent truly the or- 
der and relation of the ideas in our own minds, another 
person will not be able to comprehend our meaning. 

George. I perceive it very clearly. You say that 
words are used by common consent. 

Tutor. That means, that all the people who speak the 
same language, consent to call things by the same names ; 
or to express the same ideas by the same signs. 

Caroline. I understand it ; and perceive the necessity 
of it ; for, if the fact were otherwise, we could not com- 
prehend each other; there would be as many different 
languages as there are persons. I wish you to say more, 
if you please, respecting those words that are the signs of 
the relations of ideas. I think I understand how a word 
is the sign of an idea, for when I think about this book 
which you gave me, the word book is the sign of what I 
think of, but I do not precisely comprehend how words 
are the signs oi thQ relations of our ideas. 

Tutor. When I say that you hold the book in your 
hand; what word expresses the relation between the 
book and your hand ? 



ORTHOGRAPHIF. 3 

Caroline. It is in. I see now, that the word in is not 
f the sign of a thing th^t I think of, but the sign of a rela- 
tion existing between the book and the hand, which are 
twp things that I can think of; so then, a word that denotes 
a relation between things, must be the sign of the relation 
between the ideas of those things. 

Tutor. Yes ; and you will, by a little reflection, per- 
ceive the different uses of words ; that some are used to 
express ideas or images of things ; some to express ideas 
of motion ; and others to express ideas of relations mere- 
ly. As, in the phrase, *' The son of David studies^'* you 
may readily perceive, that of shows the relationship ex- 
isting between the two persons ; for if we were to leave 
it out of the sentence, and say, " The son, David" &c, 
the phrase would indicate, that the two Avords referred to 
one, and the same person; so you may as readily per- 
ceive, that of is used to express the relation of the ideas in 
your mind, and the signs of those ideas, when put on pa- 
per, which are son and David. 

George. I think we have a clear notion of what has 
been said ; and that we perceive the importance of pre- 
serving the purity and uniformity of each particular lan- 
guage ; and that, in each, there should be a common set 
of signs which may be known, by all who speak that lan° 
guage, as the representatives of particular ideas, and de- 
finite relations. 

Caroline. And this, I suppose, is accomplished by dif- 
fusing a knowledge of Grammar. 

Tutor. Undoubtedly ; for Grammar treats, 

Firsty of articulate sounds, which are the sounds of the 
human voice, formed by the organs of speech, and of the 
forms and sounds of letters, wlucj^ are the representatives 
of those articulate sounds; of the combination of letters 
into syllables, and of syllables into words ; 

Secondly, of the different sorts of words, their various 
modifications, and their derivations ; 

Thirdly, of the just arrangement of words in the forma- 
tion of a sentence ; and 

Fourthly, of the proper pronunciation and poetical con- 
struction of sentences. These four parts of Grammar are 
called, 

1. Orthography, 3. Syntax, and 

2. Etymology, 4. Prosdj^y- 
I will now proceed with these in thew" order. 



4 OR'lHOGRAPHt 

ORTHOGRAPHY 



OF THE LETTERS. 

Orthography teaches the nature and powers of letters^ 
and the just method of spelling words. 

A letter is the first principle, or least part, of a word. 

The letters of the English language, called the English 
Alphabet, are twenty-six in number. 

These letters are the representatives of certain articu- 
late sounds, the elements of the language. An articulate 
sound, is the sound of the human voice, formed by the 
organs of speech. 

Letters are divided into Vowels and Consonants. 

A Vowel is an articulate sound, that can be perfectly 
uttered by itself : as, a, e, o; which are formed without 
the help of anj^ other sound. 

A consonant is an articulate sound, which cannot be 
perfectly uttered without the help of a vowel : as, by dy 
fy I ; which require vowels to express them fully. 

The vowels are, c, e, z, o, w, and sometimes w and y. 

rrand y are consonants when they begin a word or syl- 
lable ; but in every other situation they are vowels. 

Consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels. 

The mutes cannot be sounded at all, without the aid of 
a vowel. They are 6,/?, ^, dy ^, and c and g hard. 

The semi-vowels have an imperfect sound of themselves. 
They are,/", /, tw, tz, r, ly, s, z, ir, and c and g soft. 

Four of the semi-vowels, namely, /, ;«, ?t, r, are also 
distinguished by the name of liquidsy from their readily 
uniting with other consonants, and flowing as it were into 
their sounds. ^ * 

A diphthong is the union of two vowels, pronounced by 
a single impulse of the voice : as, ea in beat, ou in sound. 

A triphthong is the union of three vowels, pronounced 
in like manner : as, eau in beau, ieiu in view. 

A proper diphthong is that in which both the vowels are 
sounded ; as, oi in voice, ou in ounce. 

An improper diphthong has but one of the vowels 
sounded : as, ea in eagle, oa in boat. 

QUESTIONS. 

What do you understand by the word idea ? 
What is an articulate sound ? 



ORTHOORAPHIF.* 5 

What is language? 
What is Grammar ? 
How may Grammar be divided ? 
What does Universal Grammar explain ? 
What does Particular Grammar teach ? 
What does English Grammar teach ? 
What is the standard of English Grammar, by which we 
must be governed ? 

Into how many parts is English Grammar divided ? 

What are they called ? 

Of what does each treat ? 

What are letters? 

How many are there in the English language ? 

How are letters divided ? 

What is a vowel ? 

What letters are vowels ? 

What is a consonant ? 

When are iv and y consonants ? 

And when vowels ? 

How are consonants divided ? 

What is a mute? 

What is a semi-vowel ? 

Which four of the semi-vowels are called liquids? 

What is a diphthong ? 

What is a triphthong ? 

What is a firofier diphthong ? 

What is an imfirofier diphthong ? 



CONVERSATION II. 



OF SYLLABLES AND WORDS. 

Tutor. You answered the questions annexed to the 
first conversation so readily, that I perceive you are very- 
attentive, and that you remember what I tell you. I shall> 
by-and-by, be able to make the subject more interesting 
to you. 

Caroline. We begin already to be interested in it, for 
we know how necessary it is, that we should understand 
it ; and we believe that you will explain it to us in such 
a manner, that it will not be very dry. 

Tutor. You will probably find Orthografihy the least 
interesting part of Grammar. In acquiring a knowledge 

a2 



^ OaXHOtSRAPHY 

of this, you must be patient and perform the labour your 
selves. But when you come to Etymology and Syntax, 
more illustration will be necessary, and I shall be able to 
render you more assistance, than I can at present. 

George. , We know that, in order to understand any art 
or science \Vell, its first principles must be clearly com- 
prehended ; and, that it then becomes easy. 
I Caroline. You showed us, the other day, some remarks 

I on this subject, made by Quinctilian, which I remember. 

*' Let no person," says be, " despise, as inconsiderable, 
the elements of grammar, because it may seem to them a 
matter of small consequence, to show the distinction be- 
tween vowels and consonants, and to divide the latter into 
liquids and mutes.* But they who penetrate into the in- 
nermost parts of this temple of science, will there disco- 
ver such refinement and subtility of matter, as are not 
only proper to sharpen the understandings of young per- 
sons, but sufficient to give exercise for the most profound 
knbwledge and erudition." 

Tutor. I shall now proceed with syllables and Avords. 

OF SYLLABLES. 

A syllable is a sound, either simple or compounded, 
pronounced by a single impulse of the voice, and consti- 
tuting a word, or part of a word : as a, an, ant. 

Spelling is the art of rightly dividing words into their 
syllables, or of expressing a word by its proper letters. 

The following are the general rules for the division of 
words into syllables. 

1. A single consonant between two vowels, must be 
joined to the latter syllable : as, de light, bri-dal, re- 
source; except the letter x: as, ex-ist, ex-amine; and 
except likewise words compounded : as, up-on, un-even, 
dis-ease. 

Q. Two consonants proper to begin a word, must not be 
separated: as, fa-ble, sti-fle. But when they come be- 
tween two vowels, and are such as cannot begin a word, 
they must be divided : as, ut-most, un-der, in-sect, er-ror, 
cof-fin. 

3. When three consonants meet in the middle of a word, 
if they can begin a word, and the preceding vowel be pro- 
nounced long, they are not to be separated : as, d^-throne, 

* For some general observations on the sounds of the letters, the 
■.\ learner is referred to " Conversations on English Grammar," of 

which this is an Abridgment, page 10 and onward. 



1 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 7 

de-stroy. But when the vowel of the preceding syllable 
is puonounced short, one of th€ consonants always belongs 
to that syllable : as, dis-tract, dis-prove, dis-train. 

4. When three or four consonants, which are not proper 
to begin a syllable, meet between two vowels, such of them 
as can begin a syllable belong to the latter, the rest to the 
former syllable ; as, ab-stain, com-plete, em-broil, trans- 
gress, dap-ple, con-strain, hand-some, parch-ment. 

5. Two vowels, not being a diphthong, must be divided 
into separate syllables: as, cru-el, de-ni-al, so-ci-e-ty. 

6. Compounded words must be traced into the simple 
words of which they are composed : as, ice-house, glow- 
worm, over-power, never-the-less. 

7 . Grammatical, and other particular terminations, are 
generally separated: as, teach-est, teach-eth, teach-ing, 
teach-er, contend-est, great-er, wretch-ed, good-ness, 
free-dom, false-hood. 

OF WORDS. 

Words are articulate sounds, used by common consent, 
as signs of our ideas. 

A word of one syllable is termed a Monosyllable ; a 
word of two syllables, a Dissyllable; a word of three 
syllables, a Trissyllable ; and a word of four or more syl- 
lables, a Polysyllable. 

All words are either primitive or derivative. 

A primitive word is that which cannot be reduced to 
any simpler word in the language: as, man, good, con- 
tent. 

A derivative word is that which may be reduced to an- 
other word in English of greater simplicity : as, manful, 
goodness, contentment, Yorkshire.* 

QUESTIONS. 

What is a syllable ? 

Whtit is spelling? 

W^hat are words ? 

What are words of one syllable called ? 

What are words of two syllables ? 

What are words of three syllables ? 

What are words of four or more syllables called r 

How are words divided ? 

* A compound word is included under the head of derivatire 
words : as, pen-knife, tea-cupi, looking-g^lass ; may be reduced to 
other words of greater simplicity. 



8 ORTHOGRAPHY 

What is a primitive word ? 
What is a derivative ? 

There are many English words which, though com- 
pounds in other languages, are to us primitives : thus, cir- 
cumspect, circumvent, circumstance, delude, concave, 
complicate, &c. which are primitive words in English, will 
be found derivatives, when traced in the Latin tongue. 

The orthography of the English language is attended 
with much uncertainty and perplexity. But a considera- 
ble part of this inconvenience may be remedied, by at- 
tending to the general laws of formation ; and, for this 
end, you are presented with a view of such general max- 
ims, in spelling primitive and derivative words, as have 
been almost universally received. 

RULE I. 

Monosyllables ending ivith f, 1, or s, preceded by a single 
■voioel^ double the Jinal consonant : as, staffs mill^fiass, \!fc. 
The only exceptions are, of, ij^as, is, has, ivas, yes, his, this, 
us, and thus. — J^ow correct the following : 

It is no great merit to spei properly; but a great defect 
to do it incorrectly. 

Jacob worshiped his Creator, leaning on the top of his 
staf. 

We may place too little, as well as too much stres upon 
dreams. 

Our manners should be neither gros, nor excessively 
refined. 

RULE n. 

Monosyllables ending nvith any consonant but f, 1, or s, and 
preceded by a singlevoivel^ never double the final consonant ; 
excepting only, add, ebb, butt, egg, odd, err, inn, bunn, 
pzirr, and buzz. 

A carr signifies a chariot of war, or a small carriage of 
burden. 

In the names of druggs and plants, the mistake in a word 
may endanger life. 

Nor undelightful is the ceaseless humm, 

To him who muses through the woods at noon. 

The finn of a fish is the limb, by which he balances his 
body, and moves in the water. 

Many a trapp is laid to insnare the feet of youth. 

Many thousand families are supported by the simple bu- 
siness of making matts. 



ORTHOGRAPH¥. 9 

RULE III. 

Words ending 'voith y^ preceded by a consonant, form the 
Ulurals of nouns^ the persons of 'verbs ^ -verbal nouns ^ past 
participles^ comparatives^ and superlatives, by changing y 
into i: as, spy, spies j I carry, thou carriest ; he carrieth 
or carries ; carrier, carried ; happy, happier, happiest. 

The present participle in ing, retains the y, thati may not 
be doubled: as, carry, carrying ; bury, burying, l^c. 

But y, preceded by a voivel,in such instances as the above, 
is not changed : as, boy, boys ; I cloy, he cloys, cloyed, life; 
except in lay, pay, and say ; from which are formed, laid, 
paid, and said ; and their compounds, unlaid, unpaid, un^ 
smd, ifc. 

We should subject our fancys to the government of 
reason. 

If thou art seeking for the living among the dead, thou 
wearyest thyself in vain. 

If we have denyed ourselves sinful pleasures, we shall 
be great gainers in the end. 

We shall not be the happyer for possessing talents and 
affluence, unless we make a right use of them. 

The truly good mind is not dismaied by poverty, afflic- 
tions, or death, 

RULE IV. 

Words ending ivith y, preceded by a consonant, upon as- 
suming an additional syllable beginning nvith a consonant, 
commonly change y into i: as, happy, happily, happiness. 
But when y is preceded by a vowel, it is very rarely changed 
in the additional syllable : as, coy, coyly y boy, boyish, boy- 
hood ; annoy, annoyed, annoyance; Joy, joyless. Joyful, Isfc. 

It is a great blessing to have a sound mind, uninfluenced 
by fancyful humours. 

Common calamities, and common blessings, fall heavyly 
upon the envious. 

The comelyness of youth are modesty and frankness ; 
of age, condescension and dignity. 

When we act against conscience, we become the de- 
stroiers of our own peace. 

We may be plaiful, and yet innocent; grave, and yet 
corrupt. It is only from general conduct, that our true 
character can be portraied. 

RULE V. 

Monosyllables^ and word^ accented orj, the last syllable^ 



!0 QRTHOGRAPKY. 

ending with a sifigle consonant fireceded by a single vowel^ 
double that consonant^ when they take another syllable begin- 
ning with a vowel : asj wit^ witty ; thin^ thinnish ; to abet, 
an abettor ; to begin, a beginner. 

But if a difihthong firecedes, or the accent is on the prece- 
ding syllable, the consonant remains single : as, to toil, toil- 
ing ; to offer, an offering ; maid, maiden, isi'c. 

When we bring the lawmaker into contempt, we have 
in effect annuled his laws. 

By defering our repentance, we accumulate our sor- 
rows. 

The pupils of a certain ancient philosopher, were not, 
during their first years of study, permited to ask any ques- 
tions. 

We all have many faiilings and lapses to lament and re- 
cover. 

There is no afHiction with which we are visitted, that 
may not be improved to our advantage. 

The Christian Lawgiver has prohibitted many things, 
which the heathen philosophers allowed. 

RULE VI. 

Words endiJig with any double letter but\,and taking n^sS) 
less, ly, or ful, after them, preserve the letter double : as, 
harmles8n€ss,careles8ness, carelessly, stiffly , successful, diS' 
tressful, ^c. But those words which end with double 1, and 
take ness, less, ly, or ful, after them, generally omit one 1 : 
as, fulness, akilless, fully, skilful, Isfc. 

Restlesness of mind disqualifies us, both for the enjoy- 
ment of peace, and the performance of our duty. 

The arrows of calumny fall harmlesly at the feet of 
virtue. 

The road to the blisful regions, is as open to the peasant 
as to the king. 

A chillness, or shivering of the body, generally precedes 
a fever. 

To recommend virtue to others, our lights must shine 
brightly, not dullly. 

The silent stranger stood amaz'd to see 
Contempt of wealth, and willful poverty. 

RULE VIL 

Ness, less, ly, and ful, added to words ending with 
anient e, do not cut it off : as, paleness, guileless, closely, 
fieaceful ; except in a few words : as, duly, truly, awfuL 



ORTHOGRAPHY. H 

The warmth of disputation, destroys that sedatness of 
mind which is necessary to discover truth. 

All these with ceasless praise his works behold, 
Both day and night. 

In all our reasonings, our mind should be sincerly em- 
ployed in the pursuit of truth. 

Rude behaviour, and indecent language, are peculiarly 
disgracful to youth of education. 

The true worship of God is an important and aweful 
service. 

Wisdom alone is truely fair : folly only appears so. 

RULE VHI, 

Ment, added to words ending ivith silent e, generally pre- 
serves the o, from elision : as^ abatement^ chastisement^^ in- 
citement^ ^c. Thenvords judgment-^ abridgment^ acknow- 
ledgment^ are deviations from the rule. 

Like other tefminations^ it changes y into i, nvhenfireceded 
by a consonant : as ^ accompany^ accompaniment; merry ^ 
merriment. 

The study of the English language is making daily ad- 
vancment, 

A judicious arrangment of studies facilitates improv- 
ment. 

To shun allurments is not hard, 

To minds resoiv'd, forewarn'd, and well prepared. 

RULE IX. 

Able and ible, when incorporated into words ending wiin 
ailent Qj almost always cut it off : as ^ blame ^ blamable ; 
cure^ curable ; sense^ sensible^ Isfc. but if c or g soft comes 
before e in the origirial word^ the e as then preserved in 
words compounded with able: as, change, changeable ; 
peace, peaceable, Isfc. 

Every person and thing connected wiih self, is apt to 
appear good and desireable in our eyes. 

Errors and misconduct are more excuseable in ignorant^ 
than in well-instructed persons. 

The divine laws are not reverseible by those of men. 

Gratitude is a forceible and active principle in good and 
generous minds. 

Our natural and involuntary defects of body are not 
chargable upon us. 

We are made to be servicable to others, as well as to 
ourselves. 



12 ORTHOGRAPHY! 



RULE X. 

When ing or ish is added to words ending with silent €5 
the e is almost universally omitted: as ^ filace^ placing ; 
lodge^ lodging ; slave^ slavish i jirude^ firudish. 

An obligeing and humble disposition, is totally uncon- 
nected with a servile and cringeing humour. 

By solaceing the sorrows of others, the heart is im- 
proved, at the same time that our duty is performed. 

Labour and expense are lost upon a droneish spirit. 

The inadvertences of youth may be excused, but knave- 
ish tricks should meet with severe reproof. 

RULE XL 

Comfiounded words are generally sfielledin the same man- 
ner^ as the simfile words of which they are formed : as, 
glasshouse, skylight, thereby, hereafter. Many words end- 
ing with double 1, are exceptions to this rule : as, already, 
welfare, wilful, fulfil : and also the words, wherever, Christ- 
mas, lammas, Ijfc. 

The pasover was a celebrated feast among the Jews. 

A virtuous woman looketh well to the ways of her 
houshold. 

These people salute one another, by touching the top 
of their forheads. 

That which is sometimes expedient, is not allways so. 

We may be hurtfull to others, by our example, as well 
as by personal injuries. 

In candid minds, truth finds an entrance, and a wellcome 
too. 

Our passtimes should be innocent ; and they should not 
occur too frequently. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



CONVERSATION III. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX 



OF NOUNS aAd verbs. 



Tutor. Do you remember the explanations, which I 
hav€ often given you, of the words, analysis and syn- 
tktsis? 

George, I remember them well. Analysis!?, the sepa- 
rating of any thing into fiarts^ to find the elements of which 
it is composed; and synthesis is the joining of these parts 
together again, to make one whole. 

Tutor. That is right; and you may now perceive that 
these teifns may be applied to our present subject ; for 
you have learned, that articulate sounds are the elements 
of language; that letters are the representatives of these 
sounds, and compose syllables ; that syllables compose 
words ; that words compose sentences, and that sentences 
compose an oration or discourse. This process, you per- 
ceive, is synthetick. But, when you take an oration, or 
any composition, and decompose it, or separate its differ- 
ent parts, and find the elements of v/hich it is composed, 
you analyze it. 

George. I suppose, then, when we begin upon Etymo- 
logy and Syntax, our business will be to analyze sen- 
tences. And, as you told us, that after we had finished 
that part of Grainmar, which is called Orthografihy, you 
would explain to us the two parts, which are called Ety- 
mology and Syntax, I hope you will begin this morning. 

Tutor. Yes, 1 am quite at leisure; and I will now be- 
gin to explain to you, these useful parts of Grammar ; and 
I do it with more pleasure, because I perceiye that you de- 
sire to understand your own language. It is pleasant to 
instruct you, when you express a wish to be informed ; 
but it is a very disagreeable task to teacjh children, if they 

B 



-i KTYxMOLOGY 

have no curiosity, or love of learning ; if they discover no 
disposition to improve the minds which God has given 
them, and have no wish to become wiser and better. 

Caroline. I am anxious that you should begin your ex- 
planations, for I think we shall understand them. There 
is a great pleasure in learning, when we comprehend what 
we are taught. 

Tutor. Etymology treats of the different sorts of words 
of their derivation, and various modifications on accountOi 
cases, moods, and tenses. Syntax treats of the arrange 
mentof words in a sentence according to grammatical rules. 
But you cannot, at present, perfectly comprehend these 
definitions : I shall illustrate them more fully as we ad- 
vance, and as I find you prepared to understand the sub- 
ject. 

Caroline. You say Etymology treats of the different 
sorts of words ; I think there must be a great many sorts. 

Tutor. Not so many, perhaps, as you imagine. Although 
there are nearly forty thousand words in the English lan- 
guage, yet there are only ten different sorts, viz. the 

NOUN, or SUBSTANTIVE, VERB, ARTICLE, ADJECTIVE, PARTI- 
CIPLE, ADVERB, PRONOUN, CONJUNCTION, PREPOSITION, and 

INTERJECTION. We Call thcsc different sorts of words, 
parts of Speech. 

A substantive, or Noun, is the name of any thing that 
exists, or of which we have any notion. The word Noun, 
means name. The name of any thing which we can see, 
taste, smell, hear, feel, or conceive of, is a noun. Book, 
apple, rose, song, pin, modesty, truth, bravery, are nouns. 
Nouns have four different properties belonging to them, 
viz. person^ 7iu?nber, gender, and case. 

Nouns have two persons, the second and third. When 
we speak o/, or abdut a thing, the word, which is the name 
of that thing, is a noun of the third person; when we 
speak to a person or thing, it is of the second person : as, 
when addressing a person, I say, The book is on the table, 
George;— the nouns book and table are of the third per- 
son, but George is of the second person, because, I speak 
of the book, and the table, but I speak to George. Girls, 
study your lesson. In this example, girls is a noun of the 
second pei'son, and lesson of the third person. 

Nouns have two numbers, the singular number, and 
the plural number. When a word is the name of one 
person or thing, it is of the singular number ; when it de- 



AND SYNTAX. 15 

notes more than one, it is of the plural number. Thus, 
when! say, The man walks among the ti'ees;7nan is a noun 
of the third person, singular number, but ^recs is a noun of 
the third person, plural number. But when I say, Trees, 
I wish you would grow faster, trees is a noun of the se- 
C072G? person plural. Nouns have three Genders. Gender 
is the distinction of nouns with regard to sex. When a noun 
denotes animals of the male kind, it is of tlie Masculine. 
Gewf/er; when it denotes animals of the female kind, it is 
of the FeTnivine Gender ; and when it signifies objects that 
are neither males nor females, it is of the JVeutcj- Gender^ 
jSieuter means neither one nor the other. A noun of the neu- 
ter gender, then, means a noun, which is neither of the 
masculine gender, nor of the feminine gender. Thus, 
when I say, The boys lent the books lo \.\\q girl ; — boys is 
a noun of the third person, plural number, of masculine 
gender; girl is a noun of the third person, singular num- 
ber, of feminine gender; and books is a noun of the third 
person, plural number, of neuter gender. 

Nouns have three cases ; the Nominative case, the Pos- 
sessive case, and the Objective case. Case is the condi- 
tion, or situation of the noun in relation to other words in 
the sentence. 

At present I will explain to you, only the Nominative 
case; the others will be explained hereafter. A noun 
which denotes an animal or thing that does an action is in 
the Nominative case.* Or, in other words, when a noun 
is the actor or agent^ it is in the nominative case. And if 
a noun signifies an actor, there must be some word in the 
sentence expressing the action. 

George. What are the words, which express actions, 
called? 

Tutor. Verbs. I shall wow give you only such a defi- 
nition of a Verb, as is sufficient for your present purpose; 
and, indeed, the only one which you can yet clearly com- 
prehend; but, as we advance, I shall give you a more 
complete definition. And let me remark to you, once for 
all, that I shall present to you only such parts of the sub- 
ject as I know you are prepared to understand; and give 
you such definitions as you can comprehend at the time 
they are given. Each Conversation will prepare you for- 
the one that will follow. 

* This definition is sufficient for the learner's j&re^reTi^ purpose - 
See Conv. XVIII, the definition in Italic, page 124. 



16 ETYMOLOGY 

George. That is the way in which you have instKueted 
us in other subjects; and if you can do so in this, I am 
sure we shall be interested in it. 

Tutor, I will proceed with the Verb. A verb is a 
word that expresses an action of some creature or thing. 
Thus, if I say, The boy runs — -The ball rolls — The dog 
barks — The bird flies — 'The children play — The rain 
falls — you can be at no loss to know which words are the 
verbs. They are those that express the actions, V-iz. runs 
-—rolls — barks— flies — play — falls. The nouns, boy, ball, 
dog, bird, children, rain, are actors^ or persons and things 
that act or move, and, therefore, in the nominative case 
to the verbs that express their several actions. 

You may perceive, then, how intimate the connexion is, 
between the nominative case and the verb : one denotes 
tl.c actor, and the other the action. And you will readily 
see that, if only one animal or thing acts, there can be only 
one actL07i. Or, in other words, when the word, denoting 
the actor, signifies only one things the word denoting the 
action will signify only one action. Thus, when I say, 
The box rolls— -iojc is in the singular number, because it 
denotes but one thing, and rolls denotes but one action, 
which the box does; therefore the verb rolls is of the 
singular number, just like the nominative box. If the no- 
niiii'dtivc case, or the actor, is of the singular number, the 
vev5 must also be of the singular number. And the verb 
must also be cf th,€ same //6'?'so72 that the nominative case 
is. If the nominative is of the second fierson.^ the verb 
must be the same — if the nominative is of the third per- 
son, then the verb must be of the third per-son. On this 
account ] will give you a rule. 

RULE I. 

Averb niuslagree ivith its iiominati-ve case in niunber ana 
person. 

I shall now give you some sentences iofiarse. Parsing 
a noun is telling its person, number, gender, and case; 
and also telling all its grammatical relations in a sen- 
tence v/ith respect to other words. Parsing any part of 
speech is telling all its properties and relations. These 
relations, then, must be perfectly understood before the 
scholar can parse. You cannot yet parse a verb com- 
pletely, as you are not yet informed of all its distinctions 
and pvqperties; but you can explain such as you have al 
ready learned. 



AND SYNTAX. 17 

When you parse verbs, you will only tell their persons 
and numbers, which are the same as those of their nomina- 
tives ; and you will tell with what nominative the verb 
agrees, according to the rule which I have just given you. 
You will not give to the verb gender and case. I will parse 
for you one sentence, containing a nominative case and a 
verb; the only sort of sentences which yoa are prepared 
to parse. 

Example. 

When you know the person and number of the nomi- 
native, you know of what person and number the verb 
must be. 

Smoke ascends. Smoke is a noun of the third person, 
singular number, of neuter gender, in the nominative case 
to the verb ascends. Ascends is a verb of the third per- 
son, singular number, and agrees with its nominative case 
smoke. A verb must agree, k.c. 

Now, parse this sentence several times, till the manner 
of parsing it is quite familiar to you, and then parse the 
following sentences. 

Exercises in Parsing. 

Snow falls. Fire burns. 

Boys play. Cats mew. 

Men labour. Ladies dance, 

David studies. Children study. 

Emma writes. Girls write. 

Man talks. Men talk. 

Now try, in different parts of the conversation, to select 
these two parts of speech from ail the others, and parse 
the nominative and the verb, correctly. I will now make 
some additional 

REMARKS ON NUMBER. 

Number is the consideration of an object, as one or 
more." 

Some nouns, from the nature of the things which they 
express, are used only in the singular form : as, wheat, 
pitch, gold, sloth, pride, &c. ; others, only in the plural 
form : as, bellows, scissors, ashes, riches, &c. 

Some words are the same in both numbers : as, deer, 
sheep, swine, 8cc, 

B 2 



18 ETYMOLOGY 

The plural number of nouns is generally formed by acia 
ing s to the singular : as, dove, doves ; face, faces ; 
thought, thoughts. But when the substantive singular- 
ends in cr, ch soft, 5- A, ss, or s, we add es in the plural : as, 
box, boxes; church, churches ; lash, lashes; kiss, kisses; 
rebus, rebuses. If the singular ends in ch hard, the plu- 
ral is formed by adding the *: as, monarch, monarchs; 
distich, dislichs. 

Nouns which end in o, have sometimes es added, to form 
the plural : as, cargo, echo, hero, negro, manifesto, po- 
tato, volcano, wo : and sometimes only 5 : as, folio, nun- 
cio, punctilio, seraglio. When the o is iirvnediately pre- 
ceded by a vo'ivel, we add only s. 

Nouns ending in/, or /<?, are rendered plural by the 
change of those terminations into -vesx as, loaf, loaves; 
half, halves ; wife, wives : except grief, relief, reproof, 
and several others, which form the plural by the addition 
of s. Those which end in^, have the regular plural: as, 
ruff, ruffs; except staff, staves. 

Nouns whieh have y in the singular, with no other vow- 
el in the same syllable, change it into ies in the plural : 
as, beauty, beauties; fly, flies. But the y is not changed, 
where there is another vowel in the syllable: as, key, 
keys ; delay, delays ; attorney, attorneys. 

Some nouns become plural by changing the a of the sin- 
gular into <? : as, man, men; woman, women; alderman, 
aldermen. The words, ox and child, form oxen and chil- 
dren ; brother, makes either brothers or brethren. Some- 
times the diphthong 00 is changed into ee- in the plural: 
as, foot, feet; goose, geese; tooth, teeth. Louse and 
mouse, make lice and mice. Penny, makes pence; or 
pennies, when the coin is meant; die, dice (for play); 
die, dies (for coining). 

It is a general rule, that all names of things measured or 
weighed, have no plural ; for in them not number, but 
quantity is regarded : as, wool, wine, oil. When we speak, 
however, of different kinds, we use the plural : as the 
coarser wools, the richer wines, the finer oils. 

It is agreeable to analogy, and the practice of the gene- 
rality of correct writers, to construe the following words 
as plural nouns : fiains, riches^ abns; and also, mathematics^ 
metaphysics^ politics^ ethics^ optics^ pneumatics^ with other 
similar names of sciences. 

Dr. Johnson says, that the adjective much is sometimes 



AND SYNTAX. 



19 



a term of number, as well as of quantity. This- may ac- 
count for the instances we meet with of its associating 
with fiains as a plural noun : as, " much pains." The 
connexion, however, is not to be recommended. 
^ The word news is now almost universally considered as 
belonging to the singular number. 

The noun means is used both in the singular and the 
plural number. 

As a general rule for the use of the word means^ as ei- 
ther singular or plural, it would render the construction 
less vague, and the expression therefore less ambiguous, 
were we to employ it as singular when the mediation or 
instrumentality of one thing is implied; and, as plural, 
when two or more mediating causes are referred to. " He 
was careful to observe what means ivere employed by his 
adversaries, to counteract his schemes." Here means is 
properly joined with the plural verb, several methods of 
counteraction being signified. "The king consented ; 
and, by this means, all hope of success was lost." Here 
but one mediating circumstance is implied ; and the noun 
is, therefore, used as singular. 

The following words, which have been adopted from 
the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin languages, are thus distin- 
guished with respect to number. 



Singular. 

Cherub. 

Seraph. 

Antithesis. 

Automaton. 

Basis. 

Crisis. 

Criterion. 

Diaeresis. 

Ellipsis. 

Emphasis. 

Hypothesis. 

Metamor- 
phosis. 

Genus. 

Lamina. 



Plural. 

Cherubim. 

Seraphim. 

Antitheses. 

Automata. 

Bases. 

Crises. 

Criteria. 

Diaereses, 

Ellipses. 

Emphases. 

Hypotheses. 

Metamor- 
phoses. 

Genefa. 

Laminae. 



Singular 
Phoenomen 

Appendix. 

Arcanum. 

Axis. 

Calx. 

Datum. 

Effluvium. 

Encpmium. 

Erratum. 
Genius. 
Memoran- 
dum. 
Stratum. 



Plural. 
on. Phoenomena. 
5 Appendices,or 
\ Appendixes. 

Arcana. 

Axes. 

Calces. 

Data. 

Effluvia. 
5 Encomia, cr 
\ Encomiums. 

Errata. 

Genii.* 
C Memoranda, or 
\ Memorandums 

Strata. 



* Genii, when it signifies aerial spirits; Geniuses, when signi^- 
iBg persons of genius. 



Singular. 


Plural 


Radius. 


Radii. 


Stamen. 


Stamina. 


Vortex. 


Vortices. 



20 ET'^MOLOGY 

Singular. Plural. 

Index Undices, or 

^ Indexes.* 
Medium. Media. 

Magus. Magi. 

Some words derived from the learned languages, are 
confined to the plural number : as, antipodes, credenda, 
literati, minutiae. 

The following nouns being, in Latin, both singular and 
plural, are used in the same manner, when adopted into 
our tongue : hiatus, apparatus, series, species. 

By studying this Conversation thoroughly, you will find 
the next quite easy to be understoood ; and will be able, at 
another time, to answer the following questions, which I 
shall ask you before I give you further instruction. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is a noun ? 

How many persons has it ? 

How do you distinguish the persons ? 

How many numbers have nouns ? 

What are they ? 

How do you distinguish them ? 

How many genders have nouns ? 

What are they ? 

How do you know them ? 

How many cases have nouns ? 

When is a noun in the nominative case ? 

What is a verb? 

What belong to verbs ? 

Have they genders and cases? 

How do you know the person and number of verbs ? 

Are verbs of the singular and plural number spelled 
alike ? 

What rule do you give when you parse a verb ? 

What is the use or necessity of this rule ? 

What nouns are used only in the singular form ? 

What are used only in the plural form ? 

What are the same in both numbers ? 

How is the plural number of nouns generally formed? 

When the noun singular ends in x, ch soft, sh^ ss, or 5, 
how is the plural formed ? 

* Indexes, when it signifies pointers, or tables of contents : In- 
dices, when referring to aJg-ebraic tjuantities. 



AND SYNTAX. 2 3 

But if the singular ends in ch hard, how is the plural 
.jformed ? 

How do nouns ending in o form their plural ? 

How those ending in/", orfe? what exceptions ? 

How those in y ? what exception ? 

What is the general rule respecting the names of things 
weighed and measured ? 

Is there any exception to this ? 

What nouns change a into c, and oo into ee, to form the 
plural ? 

What is the plural of 6rorAer.^ 

Of what number are fiains^ riches^ ^ahnsy ethics, optics, 
kc. ? 

Of what number is news ? 

How is the noun means used ? 

How are hiatus, afiparatusy series, s/iecies,\jLsedl Why i 



CONVERSATION IV, 



OF NOUNS AND VERBS. CASES OF NOUNS. 

Tutor. I find by the correctness with which you have 
answered the questions relating to our last conversation, 
that you will find no difficulty in understanding what I shall 
say in this. You were yesterday informed, that nouns 
have three cases, the Nominative, Possessive, and Objec- 
tive ; but I explained only the J^ominative, which denotes 
an actor. I shall now give you the Possessive and Objec- 
tive cases. 

When the noun is in the Possessive Case, it denotes the 
possessor of some thing, and is spelled differently from the 
nominative case: as, Boy's hat.-— The boy is the possessor 
of the hat, which is shown by an apostrophe and an s, 
after thre word boy. When a noun of the plural number 
is in the possessive case, and ends in s, we only add an 
apostrophe to it : as, Boys' hats. — If the plural number is 
formed otherwise than by adding s to the singular, the pos- 
sessive case plural is formed by the apostrophe and the « 
also, just as we form the possessive case singular : as,— - 
Man's house.— -Men's house.— Woman's bonnet. — Wo- 
men's bonnets, in these examples, mail's and woman's 



22 ETYMOLOGY 

are in the possessive case, singular number, and the nouna 
men's and tifomen's, are in the possessive case, /i/wra/ 
number. 

Caroline. I understand the Nominative and Possessive 
cases ; please to explain the Objective. ' 

Tutor. The Objective case denotes the object of an 
action, and is spelled just as the nominative is. The fol- 
lowing examples illustrate the three cases of nouns. 

EXAMPLES. 

Verb. 

beats the 

kicks the 

struck that 

lost those 

Take notice, that the last noun boys\ is in the plural num- 
ber, vv^hich is formed by adding s to the singular ; there- 
fore, to denote the possessive case, an apostrophe only is 
added, without another 5. 

You have now had nouns in their three cases ; and see 
that case means the different situation or relation of nouns 
in sentences. Every noun must be either in the Nomi- 
native, Possessive, or Objective Case. 

When we put a noun in the three cases without making 
a sentence, but merely to show the termination of the 
noun in the different cases, we call it declining a noun. 
Termination means ending. Th-e Possessive case you 
have seen has a termination, or ending, different from 
that of the Nominative, or Objective case. 

The nouns, Man and Mother, are thus declined : 





Nom. Case, 


The 


boy 


The 


horse 


The 


man 


The 


servant 



Poss. Case. 


Obj. Case. 


man's 


horse. 


man's 


boy. 


man's 


man. 


boys' 


ball. 





Sing. num. 




Sing, nmn 


JVbm. 


Man 


JVom. 


Mother 


Poss. 


Man's 


Poss. 


Mother's 


Obj. 


Man 


Obj. 


Mother 




Plu. num. 




Plu. nu?n. 


J^Tom. 


Men 


JVom. 


Mothers 


Poss. 


Men's 


Poss. 


Mothers' 


Obj. 


Men 


Obj. 


Mothers 



When nouns in the singular number end in ss, we some- 
times write the Possessive case with an apostrophe only, 
without another s; as goodness' sake^ righteousness* sake ; 
because it would cause too much of a hissing sound to say 
goodniss's sake^ &c. But the apostraphic s, is not always 
omitte^d in words ending in doubk s. We write the word 



AND SYNTAX. 2S 

tviitieasyxvhpti in the Possessive case, thus: Wiiness' 9 ttsti- 
mony. When the word ends in ence, the s should be 
omitted : as, for conscience' sakej but, observe, the apos- 
trophe is used. 

George. Yes, for conscience's sake, would liot only be 
disagreeable to the ear, but somewhat difficult to be pro- 
nounced with distinctness. But although we have nouns 
in ail their cases, we know only how to pars© them in the 
JVominative. 

Tutor. I will give you two rules which will inform you 
how to parse the Possessive and Objective cases. 

RULE II. 

When tivOi or more nouns come together^ signifying dif- 
ferent things^ the former imfilying fiossession must be in the 
fLosses3i~ue case^ nnd gox>erned by the latter. 

Sometimes the latter noun which governs the Possessive 
case is understood ; as, this is John's hat, but that is Pe- 
ter's. The noun hat is understood after Peter's, and it go- 
verns Peter's in the Possessive case, 

RULE III. 

Transitive verbs govern the objective case. 

Caroline. We do not know what a transitive verb is. 

Tutor. A transitive verb, is one that expresses an ac- 
tion done to some object, and governs that object in the ob- 
jective case, 

George. What does the word transitive mean ? 

Tutor. It means passing — ^^or having the power of pass- 
ing from one thing to another. When applied to a verb, 
it means that the verb expresses an action which the No- 
minative case does to some object : as, men build houses 
—horses ear hay-— fire consi^me* wood. In these sentences, 
build, eat, consumes, are transitive verbs, and govern hoU' 
ses, hay, and wood, in the objective case, according to the 
rule, Transitive verbs govern the objective case. 

Caroline, You say, that transitive verbs govern the ob- 
jective case. I do not exactly understand the word go- 
vern, when used in grammar. 

Tutor. You cannot now understand an explanation of 
grammatical government so well as you will be able to, 
after I shall have given you more instruction ; but since 
you have asked the question, I will give you such expla- 
nation as you can comprehend. Got^ernm^'wr, as it respects 
nouns, is the influence that one vjord has over another^ in 



24 ETYMOLOGY 

causing it to be in any particular case^ rather than in another. 
When we say, Peter's hat^ Peter is the possessor, and hal 
is the thing possessed by Peter. The relation between 
the Possessor and rAiw^ possessed, used to be expressed by 
<?s added to the former noun : as, Peteres hat; but now, 
by leaving out the e^ and writing the s with an apostrophe 
' to show that the e is wanting. Now, then, when a thing 
or person is possessed by another thing or person, this re- 
lation may be expressed by this sign *5,or as I have before 
told you, when the noun ends in 55, it is sometimes ex- 
pressed by this sign ' only, without the s. It is therefore 
plain that the latter noun or thing possessed, is what makes 
it necessary to add this sign '5, or this * to the former 
noun or possessor; — -and this is what it meant by govern- 
ment. The latter noun, then, governs the former in the 
possessive case, when the latter noun denotes the things 
possessed, and the former one, the possessor. 

So a transitive verb governs the Objective case of the 
noun, that denotes the object of an action ; it does not go- 
vern the Possessive or the JVojninative case. When I mean 
to say, th?it Peter is the object which I strike, I cannot say, 
I strike Peter's; I must say, I strike Peter; because the 
transitive verb does not govern the Possessive, but the 
Objective case. 

Caroline. I suppose li a. transitive verb expresses an ac- 
tion done to some object, an intransitive verb must express 
an action which is not done to any object. 

Tutor. You are right. Intransitive verbs express ac- 
tion confined to the actor. Give me an example of an in- 
transitive verb. 

Caroline. George runs. Runs is an intransitive verb, 
because George's action is confined to himself,*and does 
not affect any object. 

Tutor. Very well explained. Now, George, give me 
an example of a transitive verb. 

George. Caroline broke the glass. Broke is a transitive 
verb, because it expresses an action done by the Nomina- 
tive case Caroline, to the object ^/c«s. Broke governs glass 
in the Objective case, according to Rule III, Transitive 
verbs govern, Sec. 

Caroline. Give us, if you please, a few such sentences 
as we are prepared to parse, that we may practise upon 
them. 

Tutor. I will. 



AxND SYNTAX. 25 

Horses draw men's carriages. 
i will parse this sentence for you, and then you can parse 
the others which I shall give you yourselves. If you find 
it difficult, reflect upon what has been told you, and you 
will at length succeed. Horses \s> a noun of the third per- 
son, plural number, masculine gender, in the nominative 
case to the verb draw, Dranv is a transitive verb of the 
third person, plural number, and agrees with its nomina- 
tive case ZTor^es, according to Rule I, which says, The 
verb must agree, Sec, Men's is a noun of the third per- 
son, plural number, masculine gender, in the Possessive 
case, and is governed by the following noun carriages^ 
agreeably to Rule II. Repeat the rule. Carriages is a 
noun of the third person, plural number, of neuter gen- 
der, in the Objective case, and is governed by the transi- 
tive verb draw, according to Rule III. Repeat the rule. 

Parse the following sentences, in the same manner, 
only take care to call the verb intransitive^ when there is 
?io object acted upon. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Foxes kill people's geese. Women wash children's 
clothes. Women walk. Mothers make daughters' frocks. 
— Daughters increase mothers* pleasures — John whips 
Peter's dog — Peter's dog bites John's finger — George's 
wife's sister loves Emma's brother — In this last sentence 
George's is governed by ivife's, and wife's by sister. 

David /i/ays — ^oys play — Take notice in these, as well as 
in the other sentences, that the singular'verb ends in «, but 
in writing the plural verb the « is omitted. Now practise 
upon such sentences, in different parts of the Conversation 

I will now give you a few additional 

REiMARKS ON NOUNS. 

Substantives or nouns, are either common or proper. 

Proper nouns or substantives, are the names appropri- 
ated to individuals: as, George, London, Thames. 

Common nouns or substantives, stand for kinds contain- 
ing many sorts, or for sorts containing many individuals 
under them : as, animal, man, tree. Sec. 

When proper names have an article annexed to them, 
they are used as common nouns: as, " He is t/ie Cicero oi 
his age ; he is reading the lives of the Twelve Ccesars,** 

Common nouns may also be used to signify individuals, 



26 ETYMOLOGY 

by the addition of articles or pronouns: as, The boy is 
studious ; that girl is discreet."* 

To substantives'belong gender, number, and case; and 
they are all of the third person, when spoken o/*, and of 
the second, when spoken to : as, *' Blessings attend us on 
every side ; be grateful, children of men !'* that is, ye 
children of men. 

Some substantives, naturally neuter, are, by a figure of 
speech, converted into the masculine or feminine gender : 
as, when we say of the sun, he is setting ; and of a ship, 
^he sails well. 

Figuratively, in the English tongue, we commonly give 
the masculine gender to nouns which are conspicuous for 
the attributes of imparting or communicating, and which 
are by nature strong and efficacious. Those, again, are 
made feminine, which are conspicuous for the attributes 
of containing, or bringing forth, or which are peculiarly 
beautiful or amiable. Upon these principles, the sun is 
said to be masculine ; and the moon, being the receptacle 
of the sun's light, to be feminine. The earth is generally 
feminine. A ship, a country, a city, &c. are likev/ise made 
feminine, being receivers or containers. Time is always 
masculine, on account of its pnighty efficacy. Virtue is 
feminine from its beauty, and its being the object of love. 
Fortune and the church, are generally put in the feminine 
gender.—- There appears to be a rational foundation for 
these figurative distinctions, though they have not been 
adopted in all countries. Many of the substances, which, 
in one language, have masculine names, have, in others, 
names that are feminine. 

Greek and Latin, and many of the modern tongues, have 
nouns, some masculine, some feminine, which denote sub- 
stances in which sex never had existence. Nay, some lan- 
guages are so particularly defective in this respect, as to 
class every object, inanimate as well as animate, under 
either the masculine or the feminine gender, as they have 
no neuter gender for those which are of neither sex. This 
is the case with the Hebrew, French, Italian, and Spanish. 
But the English, strictly following the order of nature, 
puts every noun which denotes a male animal, and no 
other, in the masculine gender ; every name of a female 

* Nouns may also be divided into the followirg classes : Collective 
nouns, or nouns of multitude : aSj the people, the parliament, the 
army : Abstract nouns, or die nairies of qualities abstracted <r"ir. their 
substantives : as, knowledge, goodness : Verbal ov participial nouns : 
as, beginning-, reading, writing. 



AND SYNTAX. 



27 



animal, the /eminine j and every animal whose sex is not 
obvious, or known, as well as every inanimate object what* 
ever, in the neuter gender. And this gives our language 
a superior advantage to most others, in the poetical and 
rhetorical style : for when nouns naturally neuter are con- 
verted into masculine and feminine, the personification is 
more distinctly, and more forcibly marked. 

The English- language has threemethods of distinguish- 



ing the sex, viz. 








\. By different words : as^ 


Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


Bachelor 


Maid 


Dog 


Bitch 


Boar 


Sow 


Drake 


Duck 


Boy 


Girl 


Earl 


Countess 


Brother 


Sister 
Doe 


Father 


Mother 


Buck 


Friar 


Nun 


Bull 


Cow 


Gander 


Goose 


Bullock orl 
Steer S 


Heifer 


Hart 


Roe 


Horse 


Mare 


Cock 


Hen 


Husband 


Wife 


King 
Lad 


Queen 
Lass 


Singer 


C Songstress 01 
"l Singer 


Lord 


Lady 


Sloven 


Slut 


Man 


Woman 


Son 


Daughter 


Master 


Mistress 


Stag 


Hind 


Milter 


Spawner 


Uncle 


Aunt 


Nephew 


Niece 


Wizard 


Witch 


Ram 


Ewe 






2. 


By a difference 


of termination : asy 


Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


Abbot 


Abbess 


Jew 


Jewess 


Actor 


Actress 


Landgrave 


Landgravine 


Administrator AdministratrixLion 


Lioness 


Adulterer 


Adultress 


Marquis 


Marchioness 


Ambassador 


Ambassadress Mayor 


Mayoress 


Arbiter 


Arbitress 


Patron 


Patroness 


Baron 


Baroness 


Peer 


Peeress 


Bridegroom 


Bride 


Poet 


Poetess 


Benefactor 


Benefactress 


Priest 


Priestess 


Caterer 


Cateress 


Prince 


Princess 


Chanter 


Chan tress 


Prior 


Prioress 


Conductor 


Conductress 


Prophet 


Prophetess 


Count 


Countess 


Protector 


Protectress 



28 



ETYMOLOGY 



DeacoD 

Duke 

Elector 

Eftiperor 

Enchanter 

Executor 

Governor 

Heir 

Hero 

Hunter 

Host 



Deaconess 

Dutchess 

Electress 

Empress 

Enchantress 

Executrix 

Governess 

Heiress 

Heroine 

Huntress 

Hostess 



Shepherd 
Songster 
Sorcerer 

Sultan 

Tiger 

Traitor 

Tutor 

Viscount 

Votary 

Widower 



Shepherdess 

Songstress 

Sorceress 

Sultaness 

Sultana 

Tigress 

Traitress 

Tu tress 

Viscountess 

Votaress 

Widow 



3. JBy a noun^ pronoun^ or adjective') ^em^* prefixed to t! 
substantive : as. 



A cock spai'ro\v 

A man-servant 
A he-goat 
A he-bear 
A male child 
Male descendants 



A hen -sparrow 
A maid-servant 
A she-goat 
A she-bear 
A female child 
Female descendants 



It sometimes happens, that the same noun is either mas- 
culine or feminine. The yfordsfiarenttc/iildf cousinffinend^ 
neighbour, servant, and several others, are used indiffer- 
ently for males or females. TJiese words cannot properly 
be said to denote a distinct species of gender, as some wri- 
ters on English grammar have asserted, and who denomi- 
nate them the common gender. There is no such gender 
belonging to the language. The business of parsing can 
be effectually performed, without having recourse to a 
common gender. Thus, we may say; Parents is a noun 
of the masculine an^/ feminine gender; Parent, if doubt- 
ful, is of the masculine or feminine gender ; Parent, if the 
gender is known by the construction, is of the gender so 
ascertained. 

Nouns with variable terminations contribute to concise 
ness and perspicuity of expression. We have only a suffi- 
cient number of them to make us feel our want : for when 
we say of a woman, she is a philosopher, an astronomer, a 
builder, a weaver, we perceive an impropriety in the ter- 
mination, which we cannot avoid ; but we can say, that she 
is a botanist, a student, a witness, a scholar, an orphan, a 
companion, because these terminations have not annexed 
to them the notion of sex. 



AND SYNTAX. 2iJ 

If you have paid attention to what I have said, you will 
be able to answer the following questions before I give 
you any new information. I will write them for you, that 
you may find out the answers, which I shall expect you to 
give, when we meet again. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is a noun ? 

How many persons have nouns ? 

How many numbers ? 

How many genders ? 

How many cases ? 

How do you distinguish the three cases ? 

What rule do you give when you parse the possessive 
case ? 

When you parse an objective case what rule? 

What is a verb ? 

What distinction have I given respecting a verb? 

What is the difference between a transitive and an iitf 
transitive verb ? 

Are verbs, in the singular number, written as they are 
in the plural ? 

What is the distinction between a common and a proper 
noun ? 

Of what person are all nouns ? 

How are nouns, naturally neuter, made of masculine ot 
feminine gender ? 

Can proper nouns be converted into common nouns? 
How? 



CONVERSATION V. 



OF ARTICLES. 

Tutor. In the two preceding Conversations,! endeavour- 
ed to explain to you the tw^ principal parts of speech in the 
language, viz. the JSToun and the Verb. Every thing that 
you see about you, is called by some name. The sub- 
stance on wliich I write, is called pafier; the thing with 
which I write, is called ^^fien; the thing which you hold 
in your hand, is called a book; and the thing which Caro» 

c 2 



5q< ETYMOLOGY 

line wears in her hair, is called a comb. You perceive,^ 
then, that things are called by names, as well as persons ; 
and a word that is a name, you know, is a noun. A 
Verb, you remember, is a word of a very different mean- 
ing from a Noun : a Verb signifies^n action that some 
person or thing does. I will now introduce another part 
of speech. 

jin article is a 'word prejixed to nouns^ to limit their sig- 
nijication. 

In the English language, there are but two articles, a 
and the: a becomes an, when the following woi*d begins 
with a vowel, or a silent h: as, an acorn., an hour. Here 
you see that acorn begins with a vowel ; and h in hour is 
silent; therefore an is used ; for the first letter sounded 
in hour is the vowel o. 

George. Must we always use a before a word beginning 
with h that is sounded ? 

Tutor. No: there is one exception, ^n must be used 
when the following word begins with an h that is not silent, 
if the accent is on the second syllable ; as, an heroic ac- 
tion, an historical account. But when the h is sounded, 
and the accent is not on the second syllable, a is only to 
be used : as, a hand^ a husband^ a heathen. 

Caroline. You said we must use aw, and not c, before 
a word beginning with a vowel ; is there no exception to 
that? ' 

Tutor. Yes : there are two. An must not be used be- 
fore the vowel w, when it is sounded long, but a : as? 
a union ^ a university, a useful book^ Sec. ^ must be used 
also before the word one: as, many a one — because in 
pronouncing 072c, we sound it as if it were written with 
a w. 

J or an is called the indefinite article ; because it is 
used to point out one single thing of a kind in an indefinite 
manner: as. Give me a book — Bring me an apple; not 
meaning any particular book, or any particular apple. 
The is called the definite article; because it points out 
what particular thing ©r things are meant: as, Give me 
the book — Bring me the apples ; meaning some particular 
book, or apples. A noun used without an article to limit 
it, is generally taken in the widest sense : as, Man is mor- 
tal. You readily see that this does not mean the same, 
as a man is mortal. The former phrase means, the 
creaturcj man, that is, all mankind; the latter restricts 



AND SYNTAX. 3) 

the meaning to an individual. The rule we give, then^ 
when we parse an article, is 

RULE IV. 

^n article refers to a noun^ expressed or understood, to 
limit its signijication. 

George. Do both the articles limit the nouns they re- 
fer to? 

Tutor. Yes ; but in different ways. Ji or an requires 
the following noun to be in the singular number, and there" 
fore limits it as to its number. 

Caroline.' Does a or an always require the following 
noun to be singular ? 

Tutor. Not always ; for when the w or 6.s feiv, great 
many, dozen, hundred^ thousand, come between the article 
and noun, the noun is plural : as, a few men, a great many 
men, a dozen men, a hundred houses, a thousand houaes. 

George. I could not properly say, a houses ; but if I 
VL^Qfew, or any of the words you mentioned, I perceive 
that the noun must be plural : as, a few houses, &c. But 
the definite article, I see, may be used with nouns of 
either number: I can say, the house, ov the houses, with 
equal propriety ; how then does the definite article limit 
its noun ? 

Tutor. By referring to some particular thing or things, 
known; while a or an refers to things unknown, and of 
course to no particular thing. 

Caroline. When I say. You saw a horse, which my fa- 
ther sold, does not a refer to a particular horse, which is 
known ? 

Tutor. You have put a very proper question, Caroline ; 
and I am glad to observe you examine closely the princi- 
ples I present to you ; it is the only way to become a 
scholar. If you reflect on your question, however, you 
will find, that it is not the article, which ascertains the 
horse, spoken of to be a^arr/cw/(2r one, that is known; 
but it. is that part of the sentence that follows the word 
horse. This will appear by stopping at the word horse : 
as, You saw a horse. — What horse is referred to ? ' 

George. None, in ^^rticular. I npw perceive, that 
the indefinite article has not the power of pointing out a 
thing precisely ; but that other words render the thing de- 
finite, which the article alone could not make so. 

Caroline. I believe, that we now entirely comprehend 
the diiFerent uses of the articles. 



32 ETYMOLOGY 

Tutor. I think you do ; and I shall now write several 
questions for you to answer, and then give you a parsing 
lesson. 

QUESTIONS. 

How many articles are there in the English language : 

What are they called ? 

For what purpose are they used ? 

How does the indefinite article limit the noun ? 

How does the definite article limit it ? 

When must a become an ? 

In what instances must a be used before a vowel ? 

When must an be used before an A that is not silent ? 

When must a be followed by a plural noun ? 

What rule do you give when you parse the articles ? 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

The men saw wood. A boy runs. A girl writes. The 
husband governs the family. An owl hoots. The owls 
hoot. An ostrich runs. A bird flies. The ladies teach 
the children. The merchant sells the goods. The far- 
mers sell produce. 

Practise, as before, in different parts of the Conversa- 
tion. 

To show you more particularly their use and import- 
ance, I give you the following 

REMARKS ON THE ARTICLES. 

The peculiar use and importance of the articles will be 
seen in the following examples : " The son of a king—the 
son of the king— a son of the king." Each of these three 
phrases has an entirely different meaning, through the dif- 
ferent application of the articles a and the. 

" Thou art a man ;" is a very general and harmless po- 
sition ; but, '* Thou art the man,'* (as Nathan said to Da- 
vid,) is an assertion capable of striking terror and remorse 
into the heart. 

The article is omitted before nouns that imply the dif- 
ferent virtues, vices, passions, qualities, sciences, arts, 
metals, herbs, Sec. ; as, " prudence is commendable ; 
falsehood is odious ; anger ought to be avoided ;" &c. It 
is not prefixed to a proper name : as, " Alexander," (be- 
cause that of itself denotes a determinate individual or par- 
ticular thing,) except for the sake of distinguishing a par- 
ticular family : as, " He is a Howard, or of the family of 



AND SYNTAX. 33 

ihe Howards : or by way of eminence ; as, " Every man 
is not a Newton ;'* *' He has the courage ot an Achilles :" 
or when some noun is understood : " He sailed down^j^i? 
• river) Thames, in the (ship) Britannia." 

When an adjective is used with the noun to which the 
article relates, it is placed between the article and the 
noun: as, " a ^oorf man," " an a^r6'ea6/<? woman,** " the 
best friend." On some occasions, however, the adjective 
ptecedes a ov an : as, " such a shame,'* " as great a man 
as Alexander," " too careless an author." 

The indefinite article is sometimes placed between the 
adjective many, and a singular noun: as, 
" Full many a gem of purest ray serene, 
" The dark unfathom*a caves of ocean bear : 
" Full many aJlow*r is born to blush unseen, 
" And waste its sweetness on the desert air.'* 
In these lines, the phrases, many a gem^ and many ajlow'r^ 
refer to many gems, 2if\d many Jlowers, separately, not col- 
lectively considered. 

The definite article the is frequently applied to adverbs 
in the comparative and superlative degree ; and its effect 
is, to mark the degree the more strongly) and to define it 
the more precisely : as, " The more I examine it, the bet- 
ter I like it. I like this the least of any." 

" That which is nearly connected with us, or with 
which, from its vicinity, we have been long acquainted, 
becomes eminent or distinguishable in our eyes, even 
though, in itself, and compared with other things of the 
same kind, it isof no particular importance. A person who 
resides near a very little town, speaks of it by the name 
oi the town. Every clergyman within his own parish, is 
called the minister, or the fiarson ; and if, in a village, 
there is but one barber, or one smith, his neighbours think 
they distinguish him sufficiently, by calling him the smithy 
or the barber. A tree, a rock, a hill, a river, a meadow, 
may be spoken of in the same manner, with the same em- 
phasis. He is not returned from the hill : he is bathingin 
the river : I saw him on the top of the rock : shall we walk 
in the meadow P A branch is blown down from ^^e^re^. In 
these examples the definite article is used; because the 
thing spoken of, being in the neighbourhood, is well 
known, and a matter of some consequence to the people 
who are acquainted with it." '• 

That we may perceive, still, more clearly, the nature 
and significancy of the articles, let us put one for the 



34 ETYMOLOGY 

other, and mark the effect. When it is said, that "the 
ancestors of the present royal family were kings in Eng- 
land three hundred years before the Conqueror," the 
sense is clear ; as every body knows, that the person 
here spoken of, by the name oi the Conqueror^ is William 
duke of Normandy, who subdued England about seven 
hundred and fifty years ago. But if we say, that " the 
ancestors of the present Royal Family were kings in Eng- 
land three hundred years before a conqueror,'* we speak 
nonsense.- — Again, when it is said, that " health is a most 
desirable thing,** there is no man who will not acquiesce 
in the position : which only means, that health is one of 
those things that are to be very much desired. But if we 
take the other article, and say, " Health i^ the most desi- 
rable thing," we change the position from truth to false- 
hood : for this would imply that nothing is so desirable 
as health ; which is very wide of the truth ; virtue, and a 
good conscience, being of infinitely greater value. 
You can now answer the following 

QUESTIONS. 
Is an article ever used with an adverb ? 
For what purpose ? 
Which article is so used ? 

Is the indejinite article ever used with a plural noun ? 
Is an article ever used with a proper noun ? 
What is the effect when so used ? 
Is the article ever separated from the noun by interv^ 
Ding words ? 



CONVERSATION VI. 



OF ADJECTIVES. 

Tutor. An Adjective is a word added to a noun to ex- 
press some quality or circumstance oi X\\Q person or things 
of which the noun is the name : as, a good apple — -a siveet 
apple — a small apple. I wish you to be careful to make 
the distinction here between the word that denotes the 
thing, and the word that denotes the mere quality or cir- 



AND SYNTAX. 35 

cumstance of the thing. I have known many pupils to 
mistake the adjective for the noun^ even after studying 
grammar a long time. A little reflection on the nature of 
these two parts of speech, will prevent mistakes of this 
sort. When I say, tbat I wear a new hat, you may readily 
perceive the ditference between the word denoting the 
things and the word denoting the quality of it, or showing 
what sort of thing it is. In order to make yourselves fa- 
miliar with the Adjective, write a few nouns, and then 
prefix as many adjectives to them as you can. Thus, you 
may write the nouns, trees, rooms, tables, street^ &c. and 
then prefix such adjectives to them, as will make sense : 
as, dry, tall, green, shady, trees, &c. — a tuarm, high, lonv, 
handsome, nvetl-furnished, room — a short, tvide, narrotv, 
dirty, or cleanly, table or street. You understand that 
each of these adjectives expresses some quality of the 
things^ of which the nouns are the names. You must prac- 
tise in this way frequently, till you completely compre- 
hend the nature of an Adjective. 

George. Adjectives, then, being words to express qua- 
lities, and not things, cannot, I think, have person, num- 
ber, gender, and case. 

Tutor. Why not ? 

George. Because if I say, the long, the short, the 
round, I must tell what it is, that is long, short, or rounds 
before I express any sense ; and these words do not show, 
whether I mean to speak of one person or thing, or more 
than one ; therefore they have no number ; nor do they 
denote actors, possessors, or objects ; therefore they have 
no case. ^ 

Tutor. You are right. In our language. Adjectives 
have no person, number, gender, or case ; and the only 
variation, which they admit, is that of the degrees of com- 
parison. 

There are commonly reckoned three degrees of com- 
parison ; The Positive, the Comparative, and the Su- 
perlative. 

The Positive State expresses the quality of an object, 
without increase or diminution : as, good boys, nvise boys, 
great boys. 

The Comparative Degree increases or lessens the Po- 
sitive in signification : as, wiser hoys— ^greater boys — less 
wise boys-— or boys less wise. The Adjective may be 
placed after the noun, as well as before it, as in the last 
example. 



36 ETYMOLOGY 

The Superlative Degree increases or lessens the Posi- 
tive to the highest or lowest degree : as, greatest, wisest, 
least nvise boys, or men, or people. 

The simple word, or Positive, becomes the Compara- 
tive, by adding r or er ; and the Superlative, by adding st 
or est to the end of it : as, 

Pes, Com. Super. 

wise, wiser, \vise«r. 

great, greater, greater;. 

The words more and most, less and least, have the same 
effect : as, 

Fos. Com. Sufier. 

wise, more wise, most wise, 

wise, less wise, least wise. 

You must perceive that an Adjective is a very simple 
part of speech ; and when you parse it, you will merely 
tell of what degree of comparison it is, and to what noun 
it belongs ; and then give this rule : 

RULE V. 

jEvery adjective belongs to some noun, expressed or un 
der stood. 

Caroline. I suppose we are now prepared to parse sen- 
tences, composed of Nouns, Verbs, Articles, and Adjec 
tives. 

Tutor. Yes. I will first parse one for you, and then 
give you several more, which you must practise upon. 
The little girls write a long letter. 

The is the definite Article, and refers to the noun girls. 
Repeat Rule IV. Little is an Adjective of the Positive 
state, and belongs to the noun girls. Repeat Rule V. 
Girls is a noun of the third person, plural number, of the 
feminine gender, and nominative case to the verb write. 
Write is a transitive verb, of the third person, plural num- 
ber, and agrees with its Nominative C2i^e, girls. Repeat 
Rule I. A is the indefinite Article, and refers to the noun 
letter. Repeat Rule IV. Long is an Adjective, of the 
Positive state, and belongs to the noun letter. Repeat 
Rule V. Letter is a noun of the third person, singular 
number, of neuter gender, and in the Objective case, go- 
verned by the transitive Verb write. Repeat Rule IIL 

Parse this sentence several times ; and when you can 
do it accurately, practise upon the following, in the same 
manner. 



AND SYNTAX. 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

The great ships carry large burdens ; the smaller ships 
bear less burdens. Generous persons relieve the poor, 
old men. Wealthy ladies help indigent females. The 
little children cry. The old birds fly. Wise mothers 
teach little girls. The man's discourse caused much ex- 
citement. The girl's friends abuse the children's parents. 
The parents' servants brush the boys' new clothes. 

Note. An adjective^ used without a substantive, having; 
the definite article before it, has the force and meaning of a 
substantive of the plural number, and must be fiarsed thus : 
The rich help the /ioor. 

J<ich is an adjective used substantively, third person plu- 
ral, in the nominative case to the verb help. 

Poor is an adjective used substantively, of the third per- 
son, plural number, and in the objective case, governed 
by the transitive verb help. Repeat Rule III. 

Private virtues adorn a man. 

The grey horses prance. 

Note. One, two, three, &c. are called numeral adjec- 
:ives. 

The two armies conquered the enemies. 

Thirty men killed twenty wolves. 

Note. The words, first, second, third, Sec. are called 
numeral adjectives of order. 

The third man killed the fourth wolf. 

I shall now give you a number of questions, which you 
will be able to answer, if you recollect what I have said 
:vi this Conversation. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is an Adjective ? 

Do adjectives vary, as nouns do, on account of number, 
gender, or case ? 

Do they ever vary ? 

What variation have they ? 

How many degrees of comparison have they I 

How is the Comparative formed ? 

How the Superlative ? 

Is the noun, to which the adjective belongs, always ex 
pressed ? 

What rule do you give, when you parse adjectives? 

Is an adjective ever used .in the nature of a noun ? 

D 



38 ETYMOLOGY 

Of what number is the adjective when used substan- 
tively ? 

Now I will give you some 

REMARKS ON ADJECTIVES. 

Grammarians have generally enumerated three degrees 
of comparison ; but the first of them has been thought by 
some writers, to be improperly termed a degree of com- 
parison ; as it seems to be nothing more than the simple 
form of the adjective, and not to imply either compari- 
son or degree. This opinion may be well founded, unless 
the adjective be supposed to imply comparison or degree, 
by containing a secret or general reference to other things : 
as, when we say, "he is a fall man," " this is ^l fair day," 
we make some reference to the ordinary size of men, and 
to different weather. 

The termination ish^ may be accounted income sort a 
degree of comparison, by which the signification is dimi- 
nished below the positive: as, (^/flcX:, blackish^ or tending 
to blackness ; salt^ saltish^ or having a little taste of salt. 

The word rather is very properly used to express a 
small degree or excess of a quality : as, " she is rather 
profuse in her expenses." 

Monosyllables, for the most part, are compared by er 
and est ; and dissyllables by more and inofit : as, mild, milder, 
mildest; frugal, more frugal, most frugal. Dissyllables 
ending in y, as, happy, lovely; and in /e after a mute, as, 
able, ample ; or accented on the last syllable, as, discreet, 
polite ; easily admit of er and est ; as, happier, happiest ; 
abler, ablest; politer, politest. :*AVords of more than two 
syllables hardly ever admit of those terminations. 

In some words the superlative is formed by adding the 
adverb most to the end of them : as, nethermost, uttermost 
or utmost ; undermost, uppermost, foremost. 

In lEnglish, as in most languages, there are some words 
of very common use, (in which the caprice of custom is 
apt to get the better of analogy,) that are irregular in this 
respect: as, " good, better, best; bad, worse, worst; lit- 
tle, less, least ; much or many, more, most; near, nearer, 
nearest or next ; late, later, latest or list; old, older or 
elder, oldest or eldest;" and a few others. 

An adjective put without a substantive, witli the definite 
article before it, becomes a substantive in sense and mean- 



AND SYNTAX. 39 

ing, and is written as a substantive : as, " Providence re- 
wards the good, and punishes the bad.** 

Various nouns placed before other nouns assume the 
nature of adjectives ; as, sea fish, wine vessel, corn field, 
meadow ground, Sec. 

Numeral adjectives are either cardinal, or ordinal: car- 
dinal, as one, two, three, &c. : ordinal, as first, second, 
third, &c. 

REMARKS ON THE SUBJECT OF COMPARISON. 

If we consider the subject of comparison attentively, we 
shall perceive that the degrees of it are infinite in number, 
or at least indefinite. The following instances will illus- 
trate this position.— -A mountain is larger than a mite ; — 
by how many degrees ? How much bigger is the earth 
than a grain of sand ? By how many degrees was Socrates 
wiser than Alcibiades ; or by how many is snow whiter 
than this paper ? it is plain, that to these, and many other 
questions of a similar nature, no definite answers can be 
returned. 

; In quantities, however, that niay be exactly measured, 
the degrees of excess may be exactly ascertained. A foot 
is just twelve times as long as an inch ; and an hour is sixty 
times the length of a minute. But in regard to qualities^ 
and to those quantities which cannot be measured exactly, 
it is impossible to say how many degrees may be compre- 
hended in the comparative excess. 

But, though these degrees are infinite or indefinite in fact, 
they cannot be so in language: it is not possible to ac- 
commodate bur speech to such numberless gradations ; nor 
would it be convenient, if language were to express many 
of them. In regard to unmeasured quantities and qualities, 
the degrees of more and less, (besides those marked 
above,) may be expressed intelligibly, at least, if not ac- 
curately, by certain adverbs, or words of like impor| : as, 
'' Virtue is greatly preferable to riches ;" " Socrates was 
much wiser than Alcibiades ;" " Snow is a great deal whi- 
ter than this paper;" "The tide is considerably hi^hev 
to-day than it was yesterday-^," " Epaminondas was by far 
the most acsiomplished of the' Thebans ;" " The evening 
star is a very splendid object, but the sun \^ incomparably 
more splendid ;" *' The Deity is infinitely greater than the 
greatest of his creatures." The inaccuracy of these, and 
the like expressions, is not a material inconvenience; 
and, if it wete, it is unavoidable : for human speech can 



40 ETYMOLOGY 

only express human thought ; and where thought is nece: 
sarily inaccurate, language must be so too. 

When the wovdvery, exceedingly^ or any other of similar 
import, is put before the positive, it is called by some wri- 
ters thelsuperlative of eminence, to distinguish it from the 
other superlative, which has been already mentioned, 
*nd is called the superlative of comparison. Thus very 
eloquent^ is termed the superlative of eminence ; most elo- 
guent, the superlative of comparison. In the superlative 
of eminence, someihiixg of Gon>pavison is, however, re- 
motely or indirectly intimated ; for we cannot reasonably 
call a man very eloquent, without comparing his eloquence 
with the eloquence of other men. 

The comparative may be so employed, as to express the 
same pre-eminence or inferiority as the superlative. Thus, 
the sentence, " Of all acquirements, virtue is the most valu- 
able ," conveys the same sentiment as the following : " Vir- 
tue is more valuable than every other acquirement.'* 

When we properly use the comparative degree, the ob- 
jects compared are set in direct opfiositiorii and the one is 
not considered as a part of the other, or as comprehended 
under it. If I say, " Cicero was more eloquent than the 
Romans," I speak absurdly ; because it is well known, 
that of the class of men expressed by the word Romans, 
Cicero was one. But when I assert that ** Cicero was 
more eloquent than all the other Romans, or any other 
Roman ;" I do not speak absurdly : for, though the per- 
sons spoken of were all of the same class or city, Ci- 
cero is here set in contradistinction to the rest of his coun- 
trynaen, and is not considered as one of the persons with 
whom he is compared. — Moreover, if the Psalmist had 
said, " I am the wisest of my teachers," the phrase would 
have been improper, because it would imply that he was 
one of his teachers. But when he says, "I am wiser 
than ray teachers," he does not consider himself as one of 
them, but places himself in contradistinction to them. So 
also, in the expression, " Eve was the fairest of her daugh- 
ters," the same species of impropriety is manifest ; since 
the phrase supposes, that Eve was one of her own daugh- 
ters. — Again, in the sentence, "Solomon was the wisest 
of men." Solomon is compared with a kind of beings, of 
whom he himself was one, and therefore the superlative 
is used. But the expression, " Solomon was of all men 
the wiser," is not sense : because the use of the compara- 
tive would imply, that Solomon was set in opposition to 



AND SYNTAX. 41 

mankind; which is so far from being the case, that he is 
expressly considered as one of the species. 

As there are some qualities which admit of comparison, 
so there are others which admit of none. Such, for exam- 
ple, are those which denote that quality of bodies arising 
from their figure : as when we say, " A circular table; a 
quadrangular Q,owvX.\ a co?z2ca/ piece of metal,*' &c. The 
reason is, that a million of things participating the same 
figure, participate it equally, if they do at all. To say, 
therefore, that while A and B are both quadrangular, A is 
more or less quadrangular than B, is absurd. The same 
holds true in all attributives denoting definite qualities^ of 
whatever nature. Thus the two-foot rule C cannot be 
more a tivo-foot rule, than any»other of the same length. 
For there can be no comparison without intension or re- 
mission^ and as there can be no intension or remission in 
things always deJinitejXhese attributes can admit of no com- 
parison. By the same method of reasoning, we discover 
the cause why no substantive is susceptible of these de- 
grees of comparison. A mountain cannot be said more to 
be, or to exist, than a molehill ; but the more or less must 
be sought for in their qualities. 

You can now answer the following 

QUESTIONS. 

How are adjectives of one syllable compared? 

How do you compare those of two syllables ? 

How do you compare dissyllables, ending in t/, in ie after 
a mute, and those accented on the last syllable ? 

Do adjectives of tnore than two syllables admit of the 
terminations, er and est ? 

What adjectives arc compared irregularly ? 

What words form the superlative by adding wo*/ to the 
end of them ? 

What is the effect of the termination ish ? 

Do adjectives ever become nouns ? 

Do nouns ever become adjectives ? 

How are niimeral adjectives divided ? 

Which are ordinal ? 

Which are cardinal ? 

What sort of adjectives cannot be compared ? 

B 2 



ETYMOLOGY 



CONVERSATION VII 



OF PARTICIPLES. 

George. We now understand the Nouns, Verbs, Arti- 
cles, and Adjectives very well, and we can parse them 
without difficulty. » 

Caroline. We have found great advantage in studying 
the questions, which you have written after each Conver- 
sation ; for in order to answer all these questions, we are 
obliged to recollect all your explanations ; and then we 
find it easy to parse the examples. 

Tutor, I shall now explain to you the part of speech, 
cSiWed Participle ; and then introduce it into your exer- 
cises in parsing. A participle is a word which is derived 
from a verb, and participates of the nature of a verb, and 
also of an adjective. It participates of the nature of a 
verb, because it expresses action as the verb does ; and it 
partakes of the nature of an adjective, because it frequent- 
ly belongs to some noun, and is used as an adjective. There 
are three kinds of participles : present, perfect, and com- 
pound perfect participles, 

A present participle, which is the only one I shall liow 
explain to you, denotes an action, continuing, or still go- 
ing on, and ends in ing : as, I see a boy beating a dog. — I 
see the dog runni?ig, walking, fighting, eating, drinking, 
&c. These are present participles, derived from the 
y&xhs beat, run, walk,fght,eat, drink, &c. The rule you 
will give when you parse this participle is, 

RULE VI. 

The participle ending in ing, when not connected with the 
auxiliary, verb, to be, refers to some noun or pronoun de- 
noting the subject or actor. 

George. I suppose, then, according to the rule, that the 
first participle, which you mentioned, beating, refers to 
the noun boy — and running, walking, eating, drinking, 
fighting, all refer to the noun dog. 

Tutor. You are right. 

Caroline. You say that a participle refers to the noun 
denoting the actor ; but you said that the verb agrees 



AND SYNTAX. 43 

with its nominative^ which is the word denoting the actor i 
and why cannot a participle agree in the same manner ? 

Tutor, I shall be able to explain this to you better, a 
few days hence, than I can now. But I will try to make 
you eoniprehetid the reason. — When I say, the boy beats 
the dog — you perceive that the verb ends in s, and is of 
the third person singular, to agree with its nominative boy. 
If I make the nominative of the plural number, and say, 
the boys^l must write the verb without the s: thus, the 
boys beat, Sec. because beat is the plural verb, and beats 
is singular; and the verb, you know, must agree with its 
nominative in number and person. 

The participle never varies its termination ; it is spell- 
ed in the same manner whether the word denoting the 
actor, be singular or plural, as you may see by the follow- 
ing examples : I see the boys running, or the boy running, 
Caroline. I understand that the participle does not 
agree with a noun, but simply refers to it; and I know it 
must, of necessity, refer to some word that denotes the 
actory because the participle expresses an action as the 
verb does, and there can be no action without an actor; 
and, as the real action is ahvays connected with the per- 
son or thing that does it ; so the words denoting the actor 
and action, must have some sort of relation to each other. 
Tutor, You begin to understand, I perceive, the rela- 
tion that words have to one another- 

George, You said that the participle partakes of the na- 
ture of an adjective, and sometimes belongs to a noun like 
an adjective; will you give us some examples? 

Tutor. Yes : I see a running stream, ^.ndjlying clouds. 
Here you see that the participles, running B.n6 /lying, are 
used as adjectives. And when participles are so used, 
you may call them adjectives. Some grammarians call 
them participial adjectives. But I have another relation 
to explain, respecting the participle. When I say. The 
master sees the great boy tf aching the little child,- — what case 
do you think the noun child, is in ? 

George. Child is the object of the action, expressed by 
the particifile teaching, therefore I should take it to be in 
the objective case, but we have no rule yet, which tells 
us that an objective case is governed by a participle. 

Tutor. You are right ; and, as you unders^aiid the 
principle and the relation of the words, you might make 
a rule yourself. 1 will, however, give you one. 



44 ETYM0L0C4Y. 

RULE VII. 

Participles o/" transitive vei^ds goxrern the objective case. 
Now parse all the words in the sentence I gave you a 
few minutes since — The master^ Sec. — and then parse the 
following examples, containing the five parts of speech 
with which you are acquainted: viz. Nouns, Verbs, Ar- 
ticles, Adjectives, and Participles. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
The hunters shoot the deer running. 
The flying clouds obscure the sun. 
The rattling hail pells the windows. 
The labouring men cultivate the earth. 
The child sees the hawk killing the chickens. 
The servant watches the horse eating oats. 

Caroline. We can parse these sentences very easily, 
because we before knew how to parse all the words ex- 
cept the participle. 

Tutor. When we meet again, you must answer the 
following 

QUESTIONS. 

What is a Participle ? 
Why is it called Particifile? 
How does it differ from the verb ? 
How many participles are there ? 
What are they called ? 
Which have I explained ? 

What rule do you give when you parse the participle i 
What rule, when you parse the objective case which is 
governed by it ? 

I will now give you a few more particular 

REMARKS ON PARTICIPLES.* 

The participle derives its name from its participating, 
Dot only of the properties of a verb, but also of those of 
an adjective : as, " I am desirous oi knowing him i*^ " ad- 
mired and afiplauded he became vain ;" ^' Ha-ving finished 
his work, he submitted it," &cc. 

In the phrase, " An admired performance," the word 
admired has the form of the imperfect tense, and of the 

* These remaiks the learner may omit, till the moods and tenses 
of the verb shall have been explained. 



AND SYNTAX. 45 

participle passive of the verb to admire; and, at the same 
time, it denotes a quality of the substantive fi erf or mane e^ 
which shows it to be an adjective. 

There are three participles, the Present or Active, the 
Perfect or Passive, and the Compound Perfect: as, 
" loving, loved, having loved." 

Agreeably to the general practice of grammarians, I 
have represented the present participle, as active; and 
the past, at passive: but they are not uniformly so; the 
present is sometimes passive; and the past is frequently 
active. Thus, " The youth nvas consuming by a slow ina- 
lady;" "The Indian ivas burning by the cruelty of his 
enemies ;*' " The number is augmenting daily ;" " Plu- 
tarch's Lives are reprinting ;''* appear to be instances of 
the present participle's being used passively. " He has 
instructed me;" " I have gratefully re/iaz£/ his kindness;" 
are examples of the past participle's being applied in an ac- 
tive sense. It may also be observed, that the present 
participle is sometimes associated with the past and future 
tenses of the verb; and the past participle connected 
with the present and future tenses.— The most unexcep- 
tionable distinction which grammarians make between the 
participles, is, that the one points to the continuation of the 
action, passion, or state, denoted by the verb; and the 
other, to the completion of it. Thus, the present parti- 
ciple signifies imfierfect action, or action begun and not 
ended; as, "I am wnYm^ a letter." The past partici- 
ple signifies z.cX\Qn perfected, or finished : as, " I have 
written a letter ;" " The letter is 'written.''* 

The participle is distinguished from the adjective, by 
the former's expressing the idea of time, and the latter's 
denoting only a quality. The phrases " loving to give 
as well as t" receive," " moving in haste," " heated with 
liquor," contain participles giving the idea of time ; but 
the epithets contained in the expressions, " a loving child," 
"a 7noi;z>z^ spectacle," " a heated imagination," mark 
simply the qualities refeiTed to, without any regard to 
time; and may properly be called participial adjectives. 

Participles not only convey the notion of time; but 
they also signify actions, and govern the cases of nouns 
and pronouns, in the same manner as verbs do. 



* When tliis participle is joined to the verb to have, it is called 
perfect; when it is joined to the verb ?o 6e, or understood with it, it 
is denominated /»a«six'e. 



46 ETYMOLOGY 

Participles sometimes perform the office of substantives^ 
and are used as such : as in the following instances : "The 
beginning;^* " a good understanding;*' " excelleat ivri- 
^i?2^;'* " The c\\2iWoe\\oY\ being attached \o the king se- 
cured his crown ;*' " The general's having failed in this 
enterprise occasioned his disgrace;'* " John's having 
been writing a long time had wearied him." 

That the words in italics of the three latter examples, 
perform the office of substantives, and may be considered 
as such, will be evident, if we reflect, that the first of them 
has exactly the same meaning and construction as, " The 
chancellor's attachment to the king secured the crown ;" 
and that the other examples will bear a similar construc- 
tion. The words, being attached^ govern the word cfian- 
eel lor* s in the possessive case, in the one instance, as 
clearly as attachment governs it in that case, in the other : 
and it is only substantives, or words and phrases which 
operate as substantives, that govern the genitive or pos- 
sessive case. 

The following sentence is not precisely the same as the 
above, either in sense or construction, though, except the 
possessive case, the words are the same : " The chancel- 
lor, being attached to the king, secured his crown." In 
the former, the words, being attached, form the nominative 
case to the verb, and are stated as the cause of the effect ; 
in the latter, they are not the nominative case, and make 
only a circumstance to chancellor^ which is the proper no- 
minative. It may not be improper to add another form of 
this sentence, by which the learner may better understand 
the peculiar nature and form of each of these modes of 
expression: " The chancellor being attached to the king, 
his crown was secured." This constitutes what is pro- 
perly called, the Case Absolute ; or, the Nominative 
Absolute. 

You can now answer the following 

QUESTIONS. 

In what respect is a participle like a verb ? 

How does it differ from a verb ? 

How is it like an adjective ? 

How does it diff*er from it ? 

Is the participle ending in ing always used in an active 
sense ? • 

Is X\iQ perfect ov passive participle always used in a pas 
live sense ? 



AND SYNTAX. 47 

When is this participle properly cillecl passive^ and 
"when /lef'fect P 

Is a participle ever used as 

Can you give examples wit; : -i- ^., .o.,-., ^.„, ^.'vc, and 
c9mp.QU7id iierfect participle so used? 



CONVERSATION VIIL 



OF ADVERBS. 

Caroline. The Adverb, I believe, is the next part of 
speech in order; so I suppose we are to have that in this 
Conversation. 

Tutor. Yes; an Adverb is a word which has its gram- 
matical connections always with a rer6, Participle^ Adjec- 
tive.^ or another Adverb; so that you are now prepared to 
receive the explanations concerning this part of speech, 
and understand its relations in a sentence. It has no con- 
nexion with a noun, or any other part of speech except the 
four, which I have just mentioned. It is called adverb, 
because it is more frequently added to the verb than to 
any other part of speech; and when added to a verb, ov 
a partici/iley it usually expresses the ti?ne, the manner, or 
the/i/ac<?, in which an action is done : as, the boy walks 
filoivly, leisurely, quickly, hastily, or badly. Sec. : or with a 
participle: as, I see the boy walking sloiuly, leisurely, 
guickly, dec; these adverbs qualify the participle ; and 
you see that all these express the manner in which the, 
actions are done, that are denoted by the verb or partici- 
ple. 

There are many sorts of adverbs. 

Adverbs of time present are such as these : Now, to- 
day, Sec. 

Of time past : Already, heretofore, before, lately, yes- 
terday, hitherto, long since, long ago, &c. 

Of time to come : To-morrow, not yet, hereafter, hence- 
forth, by and by, Sec. 

Of time indefinite: Pft, often, oft-times, then, when, 
ever, never, again. See. 

Of place : There, where, elsewhere, anywhere, no- 
where, hither, whither, thither, whencej hence, thence, 



48 ETYMOLOGY 

upwards, downwards, forwards, backwards, whitherso- 
ever, Sec. ^ 
When an adverb is joined to an adjective or adverb, it^ 
generally expresses the degree of the adjective or ad- 
verb; for some adverbs have degrees of comparison like 
adjectives: as, the adverbs, soon, often, much, well ; and 
these are compared thus : 

Positive. Comparative. Sufierlative. 

soon, sooner, soonest, 

often, oftener, oftenest. 

much, more, most, 

well, better, best. 

Adverbs ending in ly^ are compared by more and most : 
Positive, Comfiarative. Superlative. 

wisely, more wisely, most wisely, 

ably, more ably, most ably. 

And adverbs express the degrees of Adjectives : as. 
Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

wise, more wise, most wise, 

wise, less wise, least wise. 

prudent, more prudent, most prudent. 

When siich phrases as the following; none at all, a 
great deal, ma7iy times, a few days ago ; are used to ex- 
press the manner, or time, and are joined to verbs or par- 
ticiples, you will call them adverbial phrases. 

George. I suppose we can now parse sentences con-: 
taining six parts of speech : Nouns, Verbs, Articles, Ad- 
jectives, Participles, and Adverbs. 

Tutor. Yes: and you must be careful to remetnber 
how each is parsed. 

In parsing a JVoun, tell its person, number, gender, and 
case. 

In parsing a Verb, tell whether it is transitive or in- 
transitive; also tell its person, number, and with what 
nominative it agrees, and givx Rule I. 

In parsing an Article,'it\\yf^2it kind, and what it refers 
to, and give Rule IV. -•:.. 

In parsing an Adjective, tell the degree of cornparison, 
and what noun it belongs to, and give Rule V. 

In parsing a Participle, tell what it refers to, and give 
Rule VI. 

In parsing an Adverb, tell of what kind it is, whether 
of time, place, or quality, 8cc. and what particular word 
it qualifies, and give 







AND SYNTAX. 49 



RULE VIII. 

Adverbs qualify verbs^ /larticifileSy adjectives, and other 
adverbs. 

By obberving these directions, you can parse these sen- 
tences, which I have written for you to practise upon. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Gobd boys study well. Very industrious children study 
a great deal. Very idle girls learn none at all. 

Note. You perceive in these sentences, that the word 
very does not belong to the nouns children and boys ^ for 
the sense is not very children-— very boys^ but it belongs to 
the adjectives industrious and idle, and it is therefore an 
adverb, and qualifies an adjective. A word is always an 
adverb when it qualifies a verb.^ an adjective, a particifile^ 
or another adverb, as I have before explained to you. 

Now parse the following exatnples : 

Old houses soon fall — The new ship sails fast — Good 
people love young children learning well — Large cities 
contain many poor inhabitants — Persons seeing little girls, 
learning grammar thoroughly, feel much pleasure-— Beha- 
ving carelessly, boys do mischief— -Running swiftly, horses 
break carriages— Servants driving horses very carelessly, 
often break people's limbs. 

The definite article is frequently prefixed to adverbs of 
the comfiarative and superlative degrees, to mark the dC' 
gree more strongly : as, 

The more the wind blows, the faster the ship sails — • 
The more the boy studies the lesson, the better the boy un- 
derstands the lesson. 

You must now try to remember the following 

REMARKS ON ADVERBS. 

Adverbs seem originally to have been contrived to ex- 
press compendiously in one word, what must otherwise 
have required two or more : as, " He acted wisely," for, 
he acted with wisdom ; " prudently," for, with prudence ; 
*' He did it here," for, he did it in this place ; " exceed- 
ingly," for, to a great degree ; *' often and seldom," for 
many, and for a few times ; " very," for, in an eminent 
degree, Sec. — Phrases which do the office of adverbs, may 
properly be termed adverbial phrases. " They labour 
none at all; They work a great deaL**--^lieTQ the phrases 

E 



5a ETYMOLOGY 

in italicsj may be called adverbial phrases, because the) 
qualify the verbs. 

There are many v/ords in the English language, that 
are sometimes used as adjectives, and sometimes as ad- 
verbs : as, More men than women were there ;'* or, " I 
am more diligent than he." In the former sentence, more 
is evidently an adjective, and in the latter an adverb. There 
are others that are sometimes used as substantives, and 
sometimes as adverbs : as, " To-day's lesson is longer 
than yesterday's :" here to-day and yesterday are substan- 
tives, because they are words that make sense of them- 
selves, and admit besides of a possessive case ; but in the 
phrase, " He came home yesterday, and sets out again to- 
day," they are adverbs of lime ; because they answer to 
the question when. The adverb much is used as all three : 
as, ** Where much is given, much is required;" " Much 
money has been expended ;" " It is much belter to go 
than to stay." In the first of these sentences, much is a 
substantive ; in the second, it is an adjective ; and in the 
third, an adverb. In short, nothing but the sense can de- 
termine what they are. 

Adverbs, though very numerous, may be reduced to 
certain classes, the chief of which are those of Number, 
Order, Place, Time, Quantity, Manner or Quality, Doubt, 
Affirmation, Negation, Interrogation, and Comparison. 

1. Oi 7iumber : as, "Once, twice, thrice," Sec. 

2. Ol order : as, "First, secondly, thirdly, fourthlv, 
fifthly, lastly, finally," Sec. 

3. O^ place : as, " Here, there, where, elsewhere,^ any- 
where, somewhere, nowhere, herein, whither, hitherj 
thither, upwards, downwards, forwards, backwards, 
whence, hence, thence, whithersoever, Sec. 

4. Of time. 

Of time present : as, " Now, to-day," Sec. 

Oi tiine past : as, "Already, before, lately, yesterday, 
heretofore, hitherto, long since, long ago," Sec. 

Of time to come : as, " To-morrow, not yet, hereafter, 
henceforth, henceforward, by and by, instantly, presently, 
immediately, straightways," S^c. 

Oi time indejinite : as, " Oft, often, oft-times, oftentimes, 
sometimes, soon, seldom, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, 
always, when, then, ever, never, again," Sec. 

5. Oi quantity : as, " Much, little, sufficiently, how 
much, how great, enough, abundantly," &c. 



AND SYNTAX. 51 

6. O^ manner ov quality : as, " Wisely, foolishly, just- 
ly, unjustly, quickly, slowly,'* Sec. Adverbs of quality 
are the most numerous kind ; and they are generally 
formed by adding the termination ly to an adjective or par- 
ticiple, or changing le into ly : as, " Bad, badly ; cheer- 
ful, cheerfully ; able, ably ; admirable, admirably." 

7. Of doubt : as, " Perhaps, perad venture, possibly, 
perchance." 

8. Of affirmation: as, "Verily, truly, undoubtedly, 
doubtless, certainly, yea, yes, surely, indeed, really," &c. 

9. Of negation : as, " Nay, no, not, by no means, not 
at all, in no wise," Sec. 

10. Of interrogation : as, " How, why, wherefore, 
whither," Sec. 

11. Of comfiarison : as, More, most, better, best, 
worse, worst, less, least, very, almost, little, alike," Sec. 

Besides the adverbs already mentioned, there are many 
which are formed by a combination of several of the 
prepositions with the adverbs, of place, ^e-r^, Mere, and 
where: as, " Hereof,'thereof, whereof ; hereunto, thereto, 
whereto; hereby, thereby, whereby; herewith, there- 
with, wherewith ; herein, therein, wherein ; therefore, 
(i. e. there-for,) wherefore, (i. e. where -for,) hereupon, 
or hereon, thereupon^ or thereon, whereupon, or where- 
on. Sec. Except therefore^ these are seldom used. 

In some instances, the preposition suffers no change, 
but becomes an adverb merely by its application: as, 
when we say, " he rides about ; " he was near falling ;" 
'* but do not after lay the blame on me." 

There are also some adverbs, which are composed of 
nouns, and the letter a used instead of at, on, Sec. : as, 
*^ Aside, athirst, afoot, asleep, aboard, ashore, abed, 
aground, afloat," Sec. 

The words, when and where, and all others of the same 
nature, such as, whence, whither, whenever, wherever, Sec. 
may be properly called adverbial conjunctions, because 
they participate the nature both of abverbs and conjunc- 
tions : of conjunctions, as they conjoin sentences ; of ad- 
verbs, as they denote the attributes either of time or of 
place. 

It may be particularly observed, with respect to the 
word therefore, that it is an adverb, when, without joining 
sentences, it only gives the sense of, for that reason. 
When it gives that sense, and also connects, it is a con- 
junction : " He is good^ therefore he is happy." The 



52 ETYMOLOGY 

same observation maybe extended to the words conse- 
quently^ accordingly^ and the like. When these are sub- 
joined to and^ or joined to (/", since^ Sec. they are adverbs, 
the connexion being made without their help : when they 
appear single, and unsupported by any other connective, 
they may be called conjunctions. 

The inquisitive scholar may natui'ally ask, what neces- 
sity there is for adverbs of time, when verbs are provided 
with tenses, to show that circumstance. The answer is, 
though tenses may be sufficient to denote the greater dis- 
tinctions of time, yet, to denote them all by the tenses 
would be a perplexity without end. What a variety of 
forms must be given to the verb, to ^twoiQ yesterday^ to- 
day, to-morroiv, formerly , lately, just now., now, i?nmediate- 
ly, presently, soon, hereafter, &c. It was this considera- 
tion that made the adverbs of time necessary, over and 
above the tenses. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is an adverb ? 

To what does an adverb belong ? 

To what does an adjecti-vehtXon^^. 

When a word qualifies a verb, participle, an adjective- 
or adverb, what part of speech is it ? 

Are adverbs compared ? 

How are adverbs ending in ly compared ? 

What is the rule when you parse an adverb ? 

Does an article ever refer to an adverb ? 

For what purpose does the article refer to it ? 

For what purpose do adverbs seem to have been ori 
ginally contrived ? 

What is an adverbial phrase ? 

What words are sometimes used as adverbs, sometimes 
as adjectives, and sometimes as nouns ? Can you give ex- 
amples ? 

When are the words, to-day, yesterday, and to-morrow. 
nouns, and when adverbs ? 

How many classes of adverbs are there ''' 

What are they ? 

What are the adverbs of number ? 

What are the adverbs of order ? 

What are the adverbs oi place ? 

What are tlie adverbs oi time present P 

What are the adverbs o^ time past ? 

What are the adverbs of time to come ? 

What are the adverbs of time indefnite i' 



AND SYNTAX. i^3 

What are the adverbs of quantity ? 
What are the adverbs of quality or manner ? 
What are the adverbs of doubt? 
What are the adverbs o{ affirmation ? 
What are the adverbs of negation ? 
What are the adverbs oi interrogation ? 
What are the adverbs of comparison ? 
What adverbs are composed of nouns^ and the letter a P 
What words are called adverbial conjunctions ? 
Why may they be so called ? 

When are the words, therefore^ consequently^ and «c- 
cordingly^ adverbial conjunctions, and when adverbs ? 



CONVERSATION IX. 



OF PRONOUNS. 

OF THE PERSONAL AND ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS, 

Tutor. I shall this morning make you acquainted with 
the Pronoun. 

George. What is meant by firo ?-^A noun we know is a 
name. 

Tutor. Pro xnedLnsJbrf or instead oj". 

Caroline. Now I think I understand what a pronoun is. 
It means instead ©/"a noun, or it is a word used instead of 
a noun. 

Tutor. It is a word used instead of a noun to prevent 
the tpo frequent repetition of the same word. Thus if we 
had no pronouns in the language, I should say, ' Caroline 
is a good girl, because Caroline studies Caroline's lessons 
well, and Caroline will soon understand Caroline's gram- 
mar.' But we have pronouns which are used to prevent 
this disagreeable repetition. 

George. And therefore, instead of repeating the word 
Caroline, so many times as you did just now, I should say, 
— ^ Caroline is a good girl, because she studies >^er lessons 
well, and she will soon understand her grammar.* — It is 
plainly to be seen, that she and her are pronouns^, used in- 
stead of the noun C«ro/g7ze. 

E 2 



ETYMOLOGY 

Carolme. And if the same could be said of George^ i 
should say, * He studies /«s lessons well,' Sec. 

Tutor. Yes: and you must readily perceive X\\2lX gender 
belongs to pronouns ; for when you speak of G^or^^, you 
say he and his ; but when you speak of Caroline^ you say 
she and her ; but when you speak of a thing that is neither 
masculine nor feminine, it is used: as, " I hold a book ; 
it belongs to you, and you must use it carefully.** Now 
you see, that pronouns must be of the same gender, as the 
nouns are for which they stand. 

George. I should think, that they must agree in number 
too, for when I speak of tivo or more books, 1 do not say 
it — but I say they or them. 

Tutor. I will give you a rule concerning pronouns. 

RULE IX. 
Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they stand 
in number and gender. 

Caroline. Do not pronouns agree with their nouns in 
person too ? 

Tutor. They may agree in person, or they may not. 
Pronouns are frequently used in such a manner, that they 
cannot agree in person with the nouns for which they 
stand, as, in this sentence : " And Jesus cried with a loud 
voice, Lazarus come forth ; and he came forth bound hand 
and foot." Here you perceive, that /i<? means Xazarws, 
which is second person, but he is third. 

Caroline. I understand it. The pronouns may agree in 
person with their noun, but they do not always : but they 
must a/wat/s agree in number and gender, therefore we 
may put that fact into the form of a rule. 

Tutor. You are right, Caroline— There are four kinds 
of pronouns, viz. the Personal, the Adjective, the Rela- 
tive, and the Interrogative Pronouns. 

At this time 1 shall only notice those called Pcrsbnal., 
and those called ^^(/ec^it'^ pronouns. There are five Per- 
gonal pronouns, viz. I, thou, he, she, it, and their plurals. 
/, is the first person 1 

7%ow, is the second person K Singular. 

jHe, «Ae, or it, is the -third person J 
We^ is the first person "S 

Fe, or t/oM, is the second person >- Plural. 
They^i is the third person J 

The noun, you know, has but two persons, viz. the se- 
cond^ when it denotes the person or thing sfioken to i and 



AND SYNTAX. 56 

the third, when it denotes the person or thing spoken of. 
But you must perceive that the pronoun is also used to 
denote the person speaking ; for when / or we is used, it 
denotes the person or persons speaking. Pronouns, there- 
fore, have three persons, viz. XVieJirsty second^ and third, 
George, What is nieanl by person ? 
Tutor. Suppose that Caroline should go out of the 
room, and leave you and me together, and I should talk to 
you about Caroline ; you perceive that /should be the 
person speakings you would be the person sfioken to, and 
ehe would be the person spoken of. When people are 
talking together, all this is rery plain ; for they can easily 
perceive who it is that speaks, who it is that is spoken to, 
and who it is that is spoken of; but when we wish to re- 
present this on paper, we nnust have particular words or 
signs to represent each person, and they must be such 
signs as will distinguish the person who speaks, from the 
one that is spoken to, and distinguish the one that is spo- 
ken to, from the one that is spoken of, and the one that is 
spoken of from both the others. In all conversations, or 
composition, there may be these three persons ; and as we 
frequently speak to things as well as to persons, and of 
things as well as of persons, we are obliged to consider 
things in grammar, as we do persons, and we use such 
words as will denote when the thing is spoken to, and 
when it is spoken o/. Person, then, in grammar, is the 
property of a noun or pronoun, which shows us whether 
the ^loun or pronoun denotes the person speaking, the 
person spoken to, or the one that is spoken of. This 
property of the noun or pronoun also causes the verb to 
vary in the second and third persons singular : as, 

First person singular, I walk. 

Second person singular. Thou walkes?. 

Third person singular. He walk*, or walk^-M. 

In these examples you see, that walk is first person to 
agree with its nominative /, but when the verb is joined 
with thou for its nominative, it ends in est, and when it 
agrees with he, it ends in s, or ethj and so in othbr verbs : 
as, I gof I speak, I eat. 

Thou goe*?. Thou speakd-sr. Thou eatest. 

He goe.5, or 7 He speak«, or^ He eats, 7 
goeih, 5 speakef/t. 5 or eateM. 5 

Whenever you see a verb ending in est, you know it to 
be of the second person singular, and it must agree with a 
nominative of the second person singular; and when you 



56 ETYMOLOGY 

see a verb ending in *, or eth^ you know it to be of the 
third person singular : and it must agree with a nominative 
of the third person singular. So, then, if the nominative 
of the second or third person should not be wnVrew, which 
frequently happens, you will know of what person the verb 
is, by its spelling : Thus, walkest^ goest^ buildest^ &c. are 
all of the second person singular; and ivo.lks or walketh^ 
eats or eateth^ drinks or drinketh^ builds or buildeihy Sec. 
are all of the third person singular: and they must agree 
with their nominatives according to Rule I, viz. A -verb 
must agree ivith its nominatiue case in number and fier son. 
Caroline. I now see more clearly the use of this rule ; 
for it would not be grammatical to say, 1 reads or readethy 
I goes QV I goeth; because the verbs 7'eads, readethy goes^ 
goethy are of the third person singular, and /is a nomina- 
tive of theirs/ person. Nor would it be correct to say^ 
thou gOy or thou goes; because neither of these verbs is of 
the second person singular, as it should be to agree with the 
nominative thou; therefore the verb should be goest; then 
the verb would agree with its nominative agreeably to the 
rule. 

Tutor. You are right, Caroline. Now, George, can 
you give me an example of bad English, which this rule 
enables you to correct ? 

George. I think I can. " The boys tvhis/iei's." — " The 
children plays^' — The peofile saith^'' are ungrammatical, 
because the verbs whisfiers^filaysy saith, are all of the third 
person singular, and their nominatives are third person 
plural; so they do not agree with their nominatives. The;- 
should be luhis/ier, P^ay, say. 

Tutor. Very well. I shall now give the personal pro- 
nouns in their different cases. The personal pronouns 
are declined in the following manner: 
Singular Number. 
2d. 3d Mas. 2d Fem.l ZdJVeu. 

Thou. Pie. She. It. 

Thine. His. Hers. Its. 

Thee. Him. Her. It. 

Plural Number. *- 

Ye or you. They. They. They. 

Yours. Theirs. Theirs. Theirs. 

You. Them. Them. Them. 

Adjective Pronouns are a kind of pronouns that belong 
to nouns like adjectives; and are, on that account, called 
pronouns adjective, of adjective pronouns.. They are 



Person First. 


JVom. 


I. 


Poss. 


Mine. 


ObJ. 


Me. 


Kom. 


We. 


Poss. 


Ours. 


Obj. 


Us. 



^ 



AND SYNTAX. 57 



therefore of a mixed nature, participating of the proper- 
lies both of pronouns and adjectives. They may be divi- 
ded into four sorts. Those which imply possession are 
called /lossessive adjective pronouns^ viz. 

My^ thij^ his^ her^ our, your, their. 

Those that denote the persons or things that make up a 
number, each taken separately and singly, are called dis- 
tributive adjective Jironouns, viz. 

Each, every, either. 

These you will perceive must be used with nouns of the 
singular number only. 

George. I see clearly it would be improper to say, every 
boxes— -each houses — either persons, Sec. I should say, ex>ery 
box — each house— either person. But what are the other 
two kinds of adjective pronouns? 

^futor. The deinonstrative and indefinite. The demon- 
strative zxQ.\\\o%Q which precisely point out the subject to 
which they relate : they are. 

This and Mc?, and their plurals, these and those, zxid the 
wordsybrmer d^nd latter. The last two are declinable. 

The indefinite are those which express their subjects in 
an indefinite or general manner. Of this kind are the fol= 
lowing : 

Some, one, any, other, all, such, 8cc. 

George, let me hear you repeat the adjective pro- 
nouns. 

George. The adjective pronouns are, 

Possessive. My, thy, his, her, our, your, their. 

Distributive. Each, every, either. 

Demonstrative. This and that, these and those, former 
and latter. 

Indefinite. Some, one, any, other, all, such, Sec. 

Tutor. You have repeated them very accurately. Se- 
veral of these words are sometimes used apart from any 
nouns : or in other words, they do not alivays belong to a 
noun like an adjective. 

Caroline. When t#ey are not used with a noun like an 
adjective, either expressed or understood, then I suppose 
they are not to be cdWed adjective pronouns, but pronouns 
only. 

Tutor. You are right; for the meaning of the word ad- 
jective is udded-—^{here(oYe when a word is not added to a 
noun it is not an adjective. For example, when his and her 
are not added to a noun, they are personal pronouns, and 
by declining he and she you will find what case they are in. 



58 ETYMOLOGY 

So, each^ every -i and either^ when used without a noun, are 
distributive fironouns. So also, with the demo7istratives. 
You will call them demonstrative pronouns <^ when they are 
not prefixed to any nouns necessarily expressed or under- 
stood. And some^ one^ any^ other, alt, and such, you will 
call indejinite pronouns, when they are not prefixed to 
nouns expressed or understood. 

George. Will you give us some examplesof these words, 
when used di?,/ironou7is merely, and some examples in which 
they are used as adjective pronouns? 

Tutor. I shall in a few minutes, give you some parsing 
lessons to practise upon; and in lheni,I will give you such 
examples as will illustrate the use of these words as pro- 
nouns merely, and also as adjective pronouns. But I have 
to remark to you, that none of these pronouns are declina- 
ble except his and her, which you know are the possessive 
and objective cases oi he and she; and the words 0/2 <r and 
other, 2iUdi former and latter. 

One is declined in the following manner i 
Singular. Plural. 

JVom. One. Ones. 

Poss. One's. Ones'. 

Obj, One. One. 

And other is declined thus ; 

Singular. Plural. 

JVom. Other. Others. 

Poss. Other's. Others'. 

Obj. Other. Others. 

One and other when declinable, or used apart from any 
noun, you will call indejinite pronouns, aS well as the 
others mentioned with them. The word another is com- 
posed of the indefinite article and the word other ; and it 
may be declined and used as a pronoun merely, like other, 
or as an adjective pronoun. The word none is composed of 
not and one ; and it seems originally to have signified only 
a single person or thing ; but there is good authority for 
using it in both numbers. None, thihi, is an indejinite pro- 
noun, either of the singular or plural number, as the sense 
may require. 

When none\^ used as an adjective pronoun, it follows the 
noun to which it belongs : as, " 7>rm« of peace were none 
vouchsafed." Self is added to possessive adjective pro- 
nouns: as, myself, yourselves ; and sometimes to personal 
pronouns : as, himself, themselves, Sec. and these, yoii will 
call compound personal pronouns \ and i^yself and yourself. 



AND SYNTAX. 59 

kc, the same, in the singular number, Hi?7iseifdind them- 
sei-ves are now used in the nominative case, instead of his - 
self B.nd theirselves. I will now give you a number of ques- 
tions, and when you can answer them all, you will be pre- 
pared to parse the sentences which I shall give you to 
practise upon. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is a pronoun ? 

How many personal pronouns are there 

How many persons have pronouns ? 

How many cases have they ? 

What is the first person ? 

How do you decline it ? 

What is the personal pronoun of the second person ? 

How is it declined ? 

How do you decline the personal pronoun of the third 
person, masculine gender? 

How the third person of feminine gender? 

How the thii'd person of neuter gender ? 

When you decline the pronoun of the second person, 
you find that i/ou is used in the nominative case, as vi^ell as 
in the objective. When you see the word you^ written in 
a sentence, then, how will you know whether it is a no- 
minative or an objective case ? 

How will you know when the pronoun it^is a nominative 
or an objective case ? 

When you say a word is of the first, second, or third 
person, what do you understand by the word fierso?i P 

What are adject-ive fironouns? 

How many kinds are there ? 

What are the possessive ? 

What are the distributiue ? 

What are the demonstrative? 

What are the indefinite ? 

Which of the fiossessive are declinable ? 

Are these two called adjective pronouns when they are" 
declinable and have cases ? 

What are they called ? 

Which of the indefinite are declinable? 

Decline one. 

Decline other. 

Are any of the distributive or demonstrative declina- 
ble ? 

Decline/ormer and latter. 



60 ETYMOLOGY 

When are all these considered as adjective proneuns, 
and when as pronouns merely ? 

What do you understand by the word adjective? 

What rule have you for pronouns ? 

What is the personal termination of the verb of the se- 
cond person singular ? or in other words, how does the 
verb of the second person singular end ? 

What is the personal termination of the verb of the third 
person singular ? 

Now parse the following sentences, in which you will 
:0nd the personal and adjective pronouns, combined with 
those parts of speech which you had before; and when 
parsing the adjective pronoun, you will give 

RULE X. 

Every adjective /jronow?2 belongs to some noun, or pre 
noun, expressed or understood. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
I see that man teaching his child. Your father loves 
his children very much. My friends visit me very often. 
People many times complain unreasonably. I run. Thou 
runnest. He runs. He runneth. We run. You run. 
They run. Thou teachest me. I teach thee. He teaches 
us. She loves hinu He pities her. Her they instruct. 
Them we command. You they feed. Them you carry. 
Every man helps a little. Some persons labour, others 
labour not; the* former increase, the latter decrease. 
Those horses draw the new coach very easily. Each 
pupil daily recites his oivn^ lesson twice. You have not 
any other books. 

Note. A pronoun in the possessive case, like a noun, is 
governed by the Jo II owing 7ioun expressed or understood^ 

One loves one's self. Our neighbours invite their 
friends. Her boys play a great deal. Her son loves her. 
Thy daughter pleases her teacher. Your dog hurts mine. 
My servant assists yours. 

Note. Adjectives, and adjective pronouns, belong to pro- 
nouns as well as to nouns. 

The old bird feeds the young ones. 
Every one learns his task well. 

* The article refers to a pronoun as well as to a noun. 

t The word oim may be parsed as a pcwsessive adjective pronoua, 



AND SYNTAX. ^\ 

uieat boys teach the small ones. 

I will novs' close this Conversation with a few addi- 
tional 

REMARKS. 

Mine and Mmf, instead of my and thij^ were formerly 
used before a substantive, or adjective, beginning with a 
vowel, or a silent h : as, " Blot out all mine iniquities.'* 

The following sentences exemplify the possessive adjec- 
tive pronouns.^ — " My lesson is finished ; Thy books are 
defaced; He loves 7i?s studies ; She performs /^er duty ; 
We own our faults ; Your situation is distressing ; I ad- 
mire their virtues." ■ 

The following are examples of the possessive cases of 
the personal pronouns. " This desk is mine; theotheris 
thine ; These trinkets are his ; those are hers ; This house 
is ours^ and that is yours ; Theirs is very commodious." 

Each relates to two or more persons or things, and sig- 
nifies either of the two, or every one of any number taken 
separately. 

Every relates to several persons or things, and signifies 
each one of them all, taken separately. This pronoun was 
formerly used apart from its noun ; but it is now constant- 
ly annexed to it, except in legal proceedings : as, in the 
phrase, " all and every of them.'* 

iizM^r relates to two persons or things taken separately, 
and signifies, the one or the other. To say, "either of 
the three," is therefore improper. It should be, "any of 
the three." 

JVeith-cr imports " not either ;^* that is, not one nor the 
other : as, " Neither of my friends was there." If more 
than two are alluded to, it should be, " None of my friends 
was there." 

This refers to the nearest person or thing, and that to 
the most distant : as, " 27n> man is more intelligent than 
thatJ** This indicates the latter, or last mentioned; that 
the former, or first mentioned: as, " Both wealth and po- 
verty are temptations ; that^ tends to excite pride, this^ 
discontent," 

One has a positive case, which it forms in the same 
manner as substantives : as, one^ one's. This word has a 
general signification, meaning people at large ; and some- 
times also a peculiar reference to the person who is speak- 

F 



6J ETYxMULOGY 

ing : as, " One ought to pity the distresses of mankind." 
" One is apt to love one's self." This word is often used, 
by good writers, in the plural number: as, "The great 
ones of the world ;" " The boy wounded the old big^a and 
stole the young ones ;" " My wife and the little ones are 
in good health." 

Others is only used when apart from the noun to which 
it refers, whether expressed or understood : as, *' When 
you have perused these papers, I will send you the others'' 
When this pronoun is joined to nouns, either singular or 
plural, it has no variation : as, " the other man," " the 
other men." 

The following phrases may serve to exemplify the in- 
definite pronouns. " Some of you are wise and good ;" 
" A few of them were idle, the others industrious ;" " Nei- 
ther is there any that is unexceptionable ;" " one ought 
to know one^s own mind;" "They weve pil present;" 
^^ Such is the state of man, that he is never at rest;'' 
" So7ne are happy, others are miserable." 

The word anoMer is composed of the indefinite article 
prefixed to the word other. 

J\rone is used in both numbers: as, '•'-J'/one is so deaf as- 
hethatwill not hear :" " Noneol those are equal to these." 
It seems originally to have signified, according to its deri- 
vation, «or owe, and therefore to have had no plural ; but 
there is good authority for the use of it in the plural num- 
ber: as, " No7ie that go unto her return again." Prov. ii. 
19. " Terms of peace ivere none vouchsafed." Milton. 
" J^one of them are varied to express the gender." " JVone 
of them Aax'd' different endings for the numbers." Lowth*s 
Introduction. " Aowe of their productions are extant.'" 
Blair. 



CONVERSATION X. 



OF RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE 
PRONOUNS. 

In our last Conversation I told you, that there were foui- 
kinds of pronouns, viz. personal, adjective, relative, and 
interrogative pronouns. The first two I have explained 



AND SYNTAX. 63 

to you ; the last two 1 will endeavour to make you ac- 
quainted with this morning. . 

Relative pronouns are such as, in general, relate to some 
preceding noun or pronoun. The preceding noun or pro- 
noun, is "called the antecedent. Antecedent means going 
before. The noun or pronoun, therefore, that goes be- 
fore the relative, which the relative stands for or relates 
to, is its antecedent ; and the relative must be made to agree 
with its antecedent in person, number, and gender; be- 
cause the relative is a pronoun used to save the repetition 
of its antecedent. The relative pronouns are, ivho^tvhich^ 
and that. Thus, instead of saying, " The boy learns well, 
the boy studies ;" we say, " The boy learns well, who stu- 
dies." JVho, in this sentence, is a relative pronoun, third 
person, singular number, masculine gender, agreeing; with 
its antecedent noun Ooy, and in the nominative case to stu- 
ilies . 

And when you parse a relative, always give this rule s 

RULE XL 

Relative pronouns agree with their antecedent in person^ 
nuf^ber^ and gender. 

I have said that who^ luhich^ and that, are relatives. That 
is a relative, only when it has the sense oi who, or which ; 
that is, when you can use who or which in its place. Thus 
when I say, "Here is a box that I bought,'* it is the same 
sense, as if I were to say, " Here is a box which! bought.** 
" The man that came, "Sec. is the same sense, as *' the man 
wfio came.'* 

George, But I remember the word that, was among the 
demonstrative adjective fir onouns. How shall I know when 
it is a demonstrative, and when it is a relative pronoun? 

Tutor. When that is a <ie7now«^ra?ix'e, it points out some- 
thing precisely, and it cannot be changed inio who or which, 
as it can when it is a relative. For example, " Give me 
that box" — ^" See that box. In these phrases f/m^ is a 
demonstrative, and you perceive that you cannot supply 
its place by who ov which, as you can in these. " The boy 
that studies will improve." — " The wood that I bought is 
good." 

Caroline. Are the relatives declined as the pei^sonal 
pronouns are ? 

Tutor. The relative w//o is thus declined : Singular, 
N'ominative fF/io, Possessive Tf^Aose, Objective TVliom. The 



64 ETYMOLOGY 

plural is the same. This relative does not vary on ac 
count of its person, number, or gender, 

George. How then shall we know its person, number, 
and gender ? 

Tutor. By its antecedent. 

Caroline. I could have answered that question, for I 
remember the tenth rule, " Relative pronouns agree with 
their antecedents in person^ number^ and g€7ider.'* But is 
it proper to say, The master ivhick teaches me, teaches 



? 



Georg 

Tutor. No : when the antecedent denotes persons, or 
intelligent beings, you must use ivhc, iv/iose, and w/io?n ^ 
therefore you should say, the master ii^/io teaches, &c. 
But when the antecedent denotes animals or things, you 
must use which or that. 

George. Are ivhich and that declinable ? 

Tutor. No : these relatives are indeclinable. They 
are used in the nominative, and objective cases, and are 
spelled in the same manner in both ; but they hal^e n» 
possessive case. 

Caroline. \s that never used as a relative, when the an- 
tecedent denotes persons, or intelligent beings ? ^ 

Tutor. Yes, in several instances : as first, when who 
has been used in the same member of the sentence, to pre- 
vent the too frequent recurrence of the same word, we use 
that. Secondly, when persons make but part of the ante- 
cedent : as, " The wa?z and the horses that were drowned, 
have been found." In this sentence, neither who nor which 
would be proper. Thirdly, when we ask a question with 
who: as, "Who that is honest would behave thus? 
Fourthly, that is more elegantly used as a relative than who 
or which after adjectives of the superlative degree: as 
" Moses was the meekest man that ever lived." " Solomon 
was the wisest man that we read of.'* " This is the best 
pen that I ever had.'* Fifthly, that is used after the ad- 
jective same in preference to who or which : as, *' He is 
the same man that you saw.'* The word a*, when it fol- 
lows «wc//, is used as a relative, in preference to who^ whic/^ 
ox that : as, " Llike such people as are agreeable.*' "I 
am pleased with such pupils as improve," Sec. 

George. What are the interrogative pronouns ? 

Tutor. Whoy which, and what, when used in asking 
questions, are interrogative pronouns. Who and which, 
when they relate to antecedents, are relatives ,; when used 




AND SYNTAX. 65 

in asking qaestions, interrogativcs. Who is declined in the 
same manner when an interrogativcydi^ it is when a rela- 
tive. What is indeclinable. This word should not be 
used as a relative. "The book what you gave me^*' &c. 
is bad English. It should be^ " The book nvhich^ or that^ 
you gave me," Sec. 

Which and w/za; are sometimes joined to nouns like ad- 
jectives, and then they become interrogative adjective 
pronouns : as, " What man is that ?" " Which pen will 
you have ?" 

Caroline. We know now, that ivho^ which^ and thaty are 
called relative pronouns^ because they relate to some ante- 
cedent, and that adjective pronouns are so called^ because 
they belong to some noun, like an adjective; and that i7i- 
terrogative pronouns are so called, because tliey are used 
in asking questions; for a question means an interroga- 
tion; but we do not know why personal pronouns are so 
called. 

Tutor. They are so called because they denote what 
person they are of, by their spelling. They do not de- 
pend on ai]y other word for iheiv person. Thus, if I write 
the word /, or Mow, or he^ or she^ or zY, without any con- 
nexion with another word, you know what person each of 
them is ; but if I write the word wAo, or which., or that, 
you cannot tell what person it is. But if I write he as an 
antecedent before the relative, then we know the person 
of the relative, as well as its number and gender ; be- 
cause the relative depends on the antecedent for its person^ 
nujnber^ and gender, and agrees with it according to the 
tenth rule. Thus, when I say, " I who — Thou who — He 
who- — We who— You who — -They who"-— in all these in- 
stances, you perceive that who does not vary, and you can 
know its person, Sec. only by its antecedents, I, thou, he, 
Sec. But it is not so w-ith respect to its antecedents, I, 
thou, he, &c. which are personal pronouns. They have 
person of themselves, and denote their person by their 
spelling. 

Caroline. I think we now understand why the differ- 
ent kinds of pronouns are distinguished by particular 
names or terms. These distinctions of the pronouns 
show us, in some degree, their different natures and con- 
nexions. 

Tutor. I shall now ask you a number of questions which, 
I presume you can answer. 



t6 ETYMOLOGY 

QUESTIONS, 

What are relative pronouns ? 

How do you decline ivho ? 

Are which and that declinable "^ 

When must nvho be used ? 

In what instances is that more elegantly applied to fier- 
sons than ivho ? 

In what instances must that be used as a relative, where 
neither nvho nor which would be proper ? 

When must as be used as a relative ? 

How do you know the person, number, and gender of a 
relative pronoun ? 

How do you know when that is a relative, and when a 
demonstrative ? 

Which and that being indeclinable, how will you know 
their case ? See the rule below. 

What are the interrogative pronouns ? 

When which and what are added to nouns, what are they : 

I will now give you some exercises which you are pre- 
pared to parse. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
Who does that work ? — Who recites this lesson ? — 
Whom see I ? — Whom seest thou now ? — Whom sees he I 
— Whom see ye sometimes? — Whom lovest thou most? 
•—What dost thou to-day ? — ^Vhat person seest thou teach- 
ing that boy ? — Which girl instruct they ? — I have an ex- 
cellent house. — Thou hast a handsome little sister. — He 
has an honest friend. — He hath two new knives. — We 
have most worthy friends.- — You have a most agreeable 
temper. — They have an easy task. — ^What has he ? — What 
book has he ? — Which road takest thou ? — What child 
teaches he ?— -Us they teach. — Them we teach.— Her I 
instruct. — Thee he often praises. 

RULE XII. 

When no nominative comes between the relativ.e and the 
verb f the relative is the nominative to the verb ; but when a 
nominative does come between the relative and the verb^ the 
relative must be in the possessive case, and governed by the 
following noun. Or in the objective^ and governed by the 
following verb^ participUy or fireposition^ in its own mem- 
ber of the sentence. 



AND SYNTAX, 67 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
The man who teaches you, pleases your father.— The 
person whom I teach, loves his friends. — The woman 
whose house they hire, owns many houses. — Thee, whom 
thy friends admire, we also love. — Them, whom thou 
pleasest, some others displease. — Whom ye ignorantly 
worship, him declare I. — Him, whom you see, I love still. 
— The house which he occupies, our neighbour owns. — 
The elegant books, which the little boys read, the old man 
sells.-— I, whom you call, hear your voice.— Thou, who 
makest my shoes, sellest many more. — I have good books, 
vou have better, he has the best. 



CONVERSATION Xf. 



OF PREPOSITIONS. 

Tutor. We commence this morning with the preposi- 
tion, which is a part of speech very easily understood. 
Prepositions serve to connect words with one another, and 
to show the relations between them. Prepositions, being 
words used to express connexions, have no person, num- 
oer, gender, nor case. They agree with nothing ; but they 
govern nouns and pronouns that follow them in the objec- 
tive case. 

The principal prepositions are the following : 



of 


in 


betwixt 


near 


over against 


out of 


into 


beneath 


up 


across 


to 


over 


from 


down 


except 


for 


under 


beyond 


before 


athwart 


by 


through 


at 


behind 


towards 


with 


about 


instead of 


off 


beside 


within 


amidst 


notwithstanding 


on 


according to 


without 


below 


concerning 


upon 


throughout 



around between touching amongst 

There are others which need not be mentioned, be- 
cause by examining and parsing these, you will easily un- 
derstand the nature and character of this part of speech, 
and be able to distinguish it from others whenever you 
see it. 



68 ETYMOLOGY 

George. You say that prepositions govern the obje^. 
tive case. They do not express any action done to au 
object, as a verb or participle does. 

Tutor. That is true. The objective case that is go- 
verned by a preposition, is not the object of an action, but 
the object merely of a relation. They require the noun 
or pronoun following, to be in the objective case, and not 
the nominative or possessive case. This you will per^^ 
ceive by puttinpj pronouns after \he prepositions which I 
have written. You will see that the pronouns must be 
7ne^ thee^ hi7n^ her^ us, themj and not /, thou^ he, she^ they. 
To say, Of/, to r/iOM,with they. Sec. you immediately per- 
ceive to be contrary to usage, and that it is nonsense. 

When nouns are placed after prepositions, then, they 
must be in the same case that a pronoun would, if placed 
where the noun is, for nouns and pronouns have the same 
construction. 

When you parse an objective case, governed by a pre 
position, you will give this rule: 

RULE XIII. 

Prepos^itions govern the objective case.* 

Caroline, I do not perceive very clearly how prepo- 
sitions connect words together ; nor do 1 well understand 
how they show the relation between them. 

Tutor. I will illustrate the nature and office of a pre- 
position by a few examples. 

The boy writes—a pen. The man walks—^ the 

river. My horse is the stable. You live— St. 

Paul's. The man fell the water. The Theatre is 

situated — : — the Park. 

In each of these expressions, you perceive either a to- 
tal want of connexion, or such a connexion as produces 
either falsehood or nonsense. Fill up each vacancy in its 
order by the following prepositions, w/7/i, towards, in, ofi- 
posite to OY over against, ijito, opposite ^o, and you will see 
that the connexion will be perfect, and the sense complete. 

George. I now see the necessity and use of preposi- 
tions as connectives, but I should like to hear one word, 
if you please, on the subject of relation. 

Tutor. When I say this box lies on the table, you may 

* The adverb like, and tlie adjectives -tvorth and like, when tliey 
belong" to preceding- nouns or pronouns, govern the objective 
case : as, She dances li^e him-; she is like him i she is "worth Aim and 
nil hisfan-iily. 



AND SYNTAX, 69 

perceive that on shows the existing relation between the 
box and the table, or the relative position each has in 
respect to the other. And so when I say, I throw the box 
under the table — up the chimney — through the window — 
down stairs — into the fire, Sec. the several prepositions 
show the different relations between the box and the other 
things mentioned. Prepositions, then, being words that 
show the relation between persons, places, and things^ 
necessarily show the relation also, between the words^ 
that denote the persons, places, and things. 

' Caroline. I think the office of the preposition, is quite 

distinct from that of any other part of speech, we have 

been made acquainted with ; and that we now clearly com 

1 ; prehend its use, and know how to parse it. 

;' Tutor. I think you do; but I shall here make a few 

.remarks concerning the verbs, which you were not before 
prepared to comprehend. There are three sorts of verbs, 
viz. the active, the passive, and the neuter verbs. The 
passive and neuter verbs, I shall reserve for some future 
Conversation. The one which I have explained to you 5 
7 and which you have been parsing, is called the acti-ue verbs 
because it expresses an action, that is performed by its 

^nominative ; and the nominative case to such a verb, may 
therefore be defined to be the actor^ as it is the word that 
denotes the person or thing that acts. This active verb 
then, is either transitive, or intransitive. In a former 
Conversation, I explained the distinction between transi- 
tive and intransitive verbs. But I can now, perhaps, make 
you see the distinction more clearly. The transitive verb 
does not always in reality, express an action done to the 
object, expressed by the objective case which it governs. 
This, you will perceive in the use of the verbs, resemble, 
understand, believe, and many others: as, " James resem- 
bles him" — "You understand her"—-^^ We believeyou." — » 
The transitive verb, however, has a cf/rd-c^ reference to the 

-object, and does not permit a preposition to be placed be- 

" tween it and its object. But the object which follows an 
, intransitive verb, must be governed by a preposition, ei- 

..ther expressed or understood, and the idiom of our lan- 
guage generally requires the preposition to be expressed; 
as you may remember from the examples I gave to show 
you, that prepositions connect words. Thus when I say, 
" I walk the window,'" you perceive that some preposition 
must be placed before the word window : as, " I walk to, 
pr by\ or towards, the window." But the transitive verb 



70 ETYMOLOGY. 

requires no preposition to follow: as, "I strike the win- 
dow" — "I break the window," 8cc. I will now give you 
a few more examples ; first of transitive verbs, and next of 
intransitive verbs. 

Men build ships. We love thee. 

He instructs me. They carry her. 

She teaches him. Men build houses. 

Intransitive Verbs. 

He looks me. They play her. 

She dances him. Men labour houses. 

The man goes Boston. We complain thee. 
Supply such prepositions, in these sentences, as will 
make sense. Reflect upon these examples, until you have 
a clear notion of the transitive and intransitve verbs. 

Verbs are frequently compounded of verbs and preposi- 
tions : as, to zi/ihold — to invest — to overlook : and this 
composition gives a new sense to the verb : as, to ujider- 
stand — to tvithdrdiW — to /brgive. But the preposition is 
more frequently placed after the verb, and separately from 
it, like an adverb: in this situation it does not less affect 
the sense of the verb, and give it a new meaning, and may- 
be considered a part of the verb, as it is, when placed be 
fore it. When you parse such verbs, you may call them 
compound verbs. And remember if the preposition gives a 
new meaning to your verb, which it would not have with- 
out it, it becomes a part of the verb, whether placed be- 
fore, or after it. Thus, to tasty means fo throiu ; but in 
the phrase to cast up. an account — to cast up^ means ta 
compute. So, to J:all on^ to bear out^ to give over^ &C. 
have very different meanings, from what they would, if 
the prepositions or adverbs after them, were not used. — 
You now know, that three parts of speech govern the ob- 
jective case, viz, transitive verbs, participles, and pre- 
positions. An objective case is always governed by one of 
these three. I will how see, if you remember what I have 
said, by asking you a few 

QUESTIONS 

What is a preposition ? 
What casie does it govern ? 
Is it ever compounded with a verbr 
What kind of verbs are these called r 
Explain the differenGe between a transitive and intrail- i 
sitive verb. 

What parts of speech govern the objective case r 

I shall now give you a parsing ksson to pratise upon 



AND SYNTAX. 7 1 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
An honest advocate pleads the cause of his client with 
much zeal. Good children tell no lies: they speak the 
truth ; they love their parents ; they respect their supe- 
riors. Envy nourishes many bad passions. Behave ye 
kindly to your friends; treat them with candour. Love 
not idleness, it destroys many. Persons who have ingenu- 
ous minds, suspect not others of disingenuousness. The 
man whom my friend supports, treats him ill. The army 
which encamps on the banks of the river, marches thence 
to-day. The pen, with which I write, makes too large a 
mark. My neighbour's little girls, going to school, the 
other day, lost their books. My workmen ploughing the 
ground, broke the plough. She is like him. She writes 
like him. She is worth him and all his connexions. 

I will close the Conversation with some further 

REMARKS ON PREPOSITIONS. 

Prepositions, in their original and literal acceptation, 
seem to have detioted relations of place; but they are novr 
used figuratively to express other relations. For exam- 
ple, as they who are fl^oT;^' have, in several respects, the 
advantage of such as are 6<?/ow, prepositions expressing 
^igh and low places, are used for superiority and inferiori- 
ty in general: as, "He is abo-ve disguise;" "we serve 
under a good master;'* "he rules o^er a willing people;" 
" we should do nothing beneath our character.'* 

The importance of the prepositions will be further per- 
ceived by the explanation of a few of them. 

O/" denotes possession or belonging, an eSect or conse- 
quence and other relations connected with these: as, 
" The house q/* my friend;" that is, "the house belong- 
ing to my friend;" " He died of a fever;" that is, " in 
consequence of a fever." 

To or unto^ is opposed xq> from : as, " He rode from Sa- 
lisbury ?o Winchester." . 

For indicates the cause or motive of any action or cir- 
cumstance, Sec: as, " He loves her /or (that is, on ac- 
count of) her amiable qualities.** 

By is generally used with reference to the cause, agent, 
^jneans, Sec: as, " He was killed i';!/ a fall;" that is, "a 
Ikll was the cause of his being killed;" " Tiiis house was 
built 6i/ him ;'* that is, " he was the builder of it.** 

With denotes the act of accompanying, uniting, Sec. : 
IS, " We will go with you*," "They are on good terms 



72 ETYMOLOGY. 

ivith each other." — With also alludes to the instrument or 
means : as, " He was cut tvith a knife.** 

In relates to time, place, the state or manner of being 
or acting, Sec. : as, " He was born in (that is, during) the 
year 1720;" "He dwells in the city:'* "She lives in 
affluence." 

Into is used after verbs that imply motion of any kind : 
as, " He retired into the country;** " Copper is converted 
ijito brass.** 

Withiuy relates to something comprehended in any place 
or time: as, " They are wzVAm the house:" "He began 
and finished his work within the limited time.'* 

The signification of without is opposite to that of within : 
as, " She stands without the gate:'* But it is more fre- 
quently opposite to with: as, "You may go without me." 

The import and force of the remaining prepositions 
will be readily understood, without a particular detail of 
them. I shall therefore conclude this head with observ- 
ing, that there is a peculiar propriety in distinguishing the 
use of the prepositions by and with ; which is observable 
in sentences like the following : " He walk* with a staff by 
moonlight ;*' " He was taken by stratagem, and killed 
with a sword." Put the one preposition for the other, 
and say, " he walks by a staff wzYA moonlight;" "he was 
taken with stratagem, and killed by a sword ;" and it will 
appear, that they differ in signification more than one, at 
first view, would be apt to imagine. 

Some of the prepositions have the appearance and effect 
of conjunctions : as, " lifter their prisons were thrown 
open,*' Sec. ^^ Before \ die;'* "They made haste to be 
prepared against their friends arrived:** but if the noun 
timey which is understood, be added, they will lose their 
conjunttive form : as, "After [the time when] their pri- 
sons,*' Sec. 

The prepositions q/]fer, before^ above^ beneath^ dLwdi se- 
veral others, sometimes appear to be adverbs, and may be 
so considered: as, " They had their reward soon after ; 
" He died not long before ,•*' " He dwells above ;" but if 
the nouns time 2ind /i lace be added, they will lose their ad- 
verbial form : as, " He died not long before that time^'' 
Sec. 

Prepositions as well as some other species of words, 
have a variety of significations. It will both gratify and 
instruct you to examine some of the various meanings 
which are attached to the preposition For. You will find, 



AND SYNTAX. 73 

that each of the phrases denoting these meanings, may, 
with propriety, be substituted for the preposition. 

I. It signifies, because of: as, " Let me sing praisesybr 
his mercies and blessings." 

0. With regard to, ivith respect Co: as, ^*' For me, no 
other happiness I own.** 

^. I?i the character of: as, '* Let her goybr an ungrate- 
ful woman." 

4. My inea^s of; by intertiosition of : as, " If it were not 

for Divine Providence, the world would be a scene 
of confusion." 

5, For the &akc of: as, " He died for those who knew 

him not." 
C'ojiducive to: as, " It is./br ihe general good." 
JVith intention of going to a certain filace: as, '*• We 

sailed from Peruybr China." 
In exfiectation of: as, " He waited long ybr the re- 
turn of his friend.'* 
Instead of: as, " We take a falling meteor for a 
star." 
VO. In ^search of: as, " He went far back ybr arguments.** 
] 1. In favour of: as, " One party was^br the king, the 

other/br the people." 
I '2. Becoming: as, " It were more^^r his honour to sub- 
mit on this occasion." 
IS. JVotwithstanding: as, '^ For any thing we know to 

the contrary, the design may be accomplished.** 
1 4. 7'o p-reserve: as, " I cannotyb?' my life comply with. 
the proposal." 
In firofiortion to: as, *' He is not very tall, yet for 
his years he is tall.'* 
.6. For the fiurfiose of :diSy " It was constructed ybr sail- 
ing in rough weather." 
To be: as, *' No one ever took hino for a very pru- 
dent man.'* 
In illustration of: as, " Thus much,ybr the first point 
under consideration.'* 

19. In exchange for: as, ** They received goldybr their 

glass beads. '^ 

20. During: as, '* He was elected to the office for his 

life." 

21. In recompense of: as, " For his great and numerous 

services, they voted him a statue.** 



74 ETYMOLOGY 

22. After O, it denotes an expression of desire: as, ** O 
for better times :" " O for a place of rest and 
peace.'* 

Before the conclusion of this Conversation, I shall pre- 
sent you with a list of Prepositions, which are derived 
from the Latin and Greek languages, and which enter into 
the composition of a great number of our words. If their 
tjignification should be carefully studied, you will be the 
Tjetter qualified to understand, with accuracy, t^he meaning 
of a numerous class of words, in which they form a mate- 
rial part. 

The Latin prepositions used in the composition of Eng- 
lish words, are the following: c, abs^ ad, nnte^ &e. 

A, AB, ABS — signify from or aivay: as, to avert, to turn 

from ; to abstract, to draw away. 
AD — signifies to or at: as, to adhere, to stick to; to ad- 

mire, to wonder at. 
ANTE — means before: as, antecedent, going before ; to an- 
tedate y to date before. 
ciRCUM — means round about: as, to circumnavigate, to sail 

round. 
CON, COM, CO, COL — signify together: as, to conjoin, to join 
together ; to comftress^ to press together ; to co-ope- 
rate, to work together ; to callafise, to fall together. 
co^T'RK'— against : as, to contradict, to speak against, 
©E — signifies yromy ^ow72; as, to e/e/jarf, to retire from •, 

to deject, to cast down. 
Di — asunder: as, dilacerate, to tear asunder. 
Dis — reverses the meaning of the ward to which it is pre- 
fixed : as, to disagree, to dispossess. 
E, EX — out: as, to eject, to throw out; to exclude, io shut 

out. 
EXTRA — beyond: as extraordinary, beyond the ordinary 

course. 

IN— before an adjective, like un, signifies privation : as, 

indecent, not decent; before a verb it has its simple 

meaning : as, to infuse, to pour in ; to infx, to fix in. 

INTER — between: as, to intervene, to come between ; to 

interpose, to put between. 
INTRO — into, inwards: as, to introduce, to lead into; to 

introvert, to turn inwards. 
DB— denotes opposition : as, to object^ to oppose j to ob- 



AND SYNTAX 75 

.irwc^, to block up ; obstacle^ something standing in 
opposition. 
I'ER — through: as, to jieravibulate^ \o walk through; to 

perforate^ to bore through. 
POST — after: as, fiost meridian.^ afternoon; Postscrifit^ 

written after, that is, after the ieiter. 
pR^ — before: as, to fire-exist,, to exist before ; to fir efx^ 

to fix before. 
PRO — forth ov forwards: as, to firotcnd^ to stretch forth; 

to /?rq;>c?, to shoot forwards. 
PRATER — •'fiast or beyond: z.%^ fireterfierfect^ pastperfect; 

fireternaturaly beyond the course of nature. 
i^-Er-^again or back: as, refirint,, to print again : to retrace^ 

to trace back. 
RETRO — backivards: retrosfiecti~ue^ looking backwards ; re- 

trograde^ going backwards. 
SE — aside apart: as, to seduce.^ to draw aside ; to secret€f 

to put aside. 
SVE-— under: sis, subterranean, lying under the earth ; to 

subscribe, to subsign, to write under. 
SUBTER — under: as, subterfiuous, flowing under, 
SUPER — above, ov over: as, superscribe, to write above ; 

to sufiervise, to overlook. 
TRANS — over, beyofid, from one place to another: as, to 
Xransfiort, to carry over ; to transgress, to pass be- 
yond ; to transplant, to remove from one soil to an- 
other. 
The Greek prepositions and particles used in the com- 
position of English words, are the following : a, amphi^ 
. anti, hyper, &c. 

A— -signifies privation ; &s, ano7iymous, without name. 
AMPHi — both, or the two: as, <2?72/i/i?(5>/ow*, partaking of both, 

or of two natures. 
ANTI — -against: as, antimonarchial, Sig^iinst government 
by a single person; anti?ninisterial, against the mi- 
nistry. 
HYPER — over and above: as, hy/iercrifical, over, or too 

critical. 
HYPO — ^^2^77c^er, implying concealment or disguise: as, A/z- 
Zzocrire, one dissembling his real character. 
META — denotes change or transmutation : as, to metamor^ 

phose, to change the shape. 
PERI — round about: 2^s, perifihrasis, circumlocution. 
SYN, SYM' — together: as, synod, a meeting, or coming to - 
geiher; s'yinfwthy, fellow-feeling, feeling together. 



ETYMOLOGY 



CONVERSATION XII. 



I 



OF CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS 

Tutor. I will now give you ihe last two parts of speech. 
viz. the Conjunction and Interjection. 

A Co>3JUNOTiON is a part of speech (ihiefly used to con- 
3iect sentences ; so as, out of two or more sentences, to 
make but one. It sometimes connects only words'. Con- 
junctions are divided into two sorts, the Copulative and 
the Disjunctive. 

The conjunction copulative serves to connect, or con- 
tinue a sentence, by expressins? a condition, a supposition, 
a cause, &c .: as, " He and his sister study." *' I will go, 
7/ he will permit me." " The man is happy, because he 
is good.** 

The conjunction disjunctive serves not only to connect 
and continue the sentence, but also to express opposition 
of meaning in different degrees : as, "He or his sister stu- 
dies.*' *' I would go, but he will not permit me." 
♦' Though ^h^ is rich, yet she is not amiable.'* 

George. I see clearly a difference between the copula- 
tive and the disjunctive conjunction; for when I say, Pe- 
ter and John study, the expression implies, that they both 
study. But, when I say, Peter or John studies, the ex- 
pression shows, that only one studies — and therefore I use 
the verb studies^ in the third person singular, not study ^ in 
the plural. 

Tutor, Very well. I will now mention the principal 
conjunctions, and you must make them familiar to you ; 
])ut you must study the character of the two sorts of con- 
junctions, 50 that you may know to which class any one be- 
longs, wherever you may see it. The nature and office of 
each part of speech must be carefully studied — nox parti- 
{ular ivords; for the same word may, in different senses, 
be used as several parts of speech. Of this I shall, by- 
nnd-by, give you examples. 

The principal conjunctions are the following : 

The Co/iuiative. And, if, that, then, both, since, for, 
because, therefore, wherefore, besides, further. 

The hisjunctive. But, or, nor, either, neither, as, than, 



AND SVisiAX U 

lest, unless, yet, notwithstanding, thougii, vviietlier, ex- 
cept, as well as. 

Caroline. The conjunctions are so different from the 
other parts of speech, that 1 think we should have known 
them, even if you had not written them. 

Tutor. I shall now say something to you about simple 
and compound sentences, that you may more clearly per- 
ceive the use and importance of conjunctions. 

A simfile sentence contains only one nominative, and one 
verb that agrees with that nominative. There may be 
other words in it ; indeed a simple sentence may contain 
several parts of speech, and be longer than many com- 
pound sentences ; yet, if it contains but one nominative, 
and one verb, which agrees with that nominative, it is but 
a simfile sentence. Thus, " Grass grows," is a simple 
sentence ; and, ^^Excellent grass grows in great abun- 
dance, in all the northern regions of our country, fiarticu- 
larly An the JVenv- England States" is but a simple sen- 
tence, for it contains but one nominative, grass, and one 
verb, grows. 

A compound of any thing, you know, is made up of sim- 
ples ; so a compound sentence is compounded of two or 
more simple ones, connected together by conjunctions, 
expressed or understood. Thus, " Grass grows, and iva- 
ter runs," is a compound sentence. I will now give you 
several simple members, which you will perceive have no 
relation to each other, till conjunctions are used to can- 
nect them. 

He is older — ^T am. She can improve — she pleases 
He has talents— opportunities to cultivate them,— 
friends desirous — he should make a figure. 

Here you see the want of conjunctions. Fill up the 
;blanks by the following conjunctions in their order, than^ 
if, and, and, that, and you will better understand the im- 
- portance of this part of speech. 

George. This illustrates the use of the conjunction 
=very clearly. When these conjunctions can be placed be- 
-tween tlie simple members, they connect them, and make 
one compound sentence. 

Tutor. Som/? conjunctions can be used to connect sen- 
tences only. That is, after one complete sentence is finish- 
^ ed, the next may be commenced wiih one of these con- 
ijl^unctions, to show that it has some connexion with the 
former ; or to express something in addition to what Jias 
tkeen said. The conjunctions, besides, further, again, &c, 

^^ .2 



^8 ETYMOLOGY 

are of this sort. These are never used to join the siiii 
pie members of a compound sentence. 

If^ than^ lest^ though, unless, yet. 7iotwithsta?iding, be- 
eause, and the compound conjunctions, so that, and as 
'Well as, are used only to connect simple members of a 
compound sentence. And some may be used either to 
connect sentences, or simple meml)ers of compound sen- 
tences : such are, and, but, for, therefore^ &c. Some 
may be used also to connect words. These are, and^ or^ 
nor, as, 8cc. And when conjunctions connect nouns and 
pronouns, the following rule must be observed. 

RULE XIV. 

The nouns and fironouns, connected by conjunctions, must 
be in the same case. 

George. Are the words which are used as conjunc- 
tions, ever used as other parts of speech ? 

Tutor. Yes, it frequently hapjjens that the same word 
is used as two or three different parts of speech in one 
sentence. Thus, " He laboured /or a dollar a day, for he 
could get no more.'* In this sentence, you perceive that 
the firstybr is a fireposition, and governs dollar in the ob- 
jective case, and that the second is a conjunctiofi, connect- 
ing the two members of the compound sentence. 

J^''or is a conjunction, whenever it has the meaning of 
because. So the word after may be used as a conjunction, 
or a preposition, or an adverb: as, " I went after him, 
after I had seen his friend, and, not long after, I found 
him.*' But I can place the noun ti?ne after the last after, 
and then it will become a preposition ; as, *' not long after 
that time,*' &c. The word before may also be used as a 
preposition, or a conjunction, or an adverb. 

When before shows the relation between some two 
words, and governs an object, it is a preposition ; — when 
it connects two members of a sentence, a conjunction ; 
and, when it has a reference to time merely, it is an ad- 
verb. The same remark applies to since and after. 

Whenever the words since, after, before, when, whilst, 
while^ whenever, and wherever, &.vt used to connect simple 
members of sentences, they may be called adverbial con- 
junctions; because, although they connect as conjunctions, 
they have a reference to time as adverbs. 

Caroli?ie. I think we now understand the conjunction. 
Will you explain the interjection^ which is the last of the 



AND SYNTAX. 79 

:tu parts of speech ; and we shall then be able to parse 
sentences, contahnng all the parts of speech. 

l^utor. Interjectioxs are words thrown in between 
the parts of a sentence to express the sudden passions or 
emotions of the speaker. The interjections of earnestness 
and grief, are oh I ah I alas ! &c. There are many other in- 
terjections expressive of wonder, pity, contempt, disgust, 
admiration, and salutation. Sometimes a whole phrase is 
used as an interjection, and we call such inter jectional 
phrases: as, out upon him!-^aivay with him!— -A las, what 
wo7ider! &;c. In parsing an interjection, you merely tell 
what part of speech it is. I shall now ask you some ques- 
tions, and then give you a parsing lesson, containing all the 
parts of speech. 

QUESTIONS, 

What are conjunctions ? 

How many kinds are there ? 

What are the principal copulative conjunctions ? 

What are the disjunctive ? 

What conjunctions connect seritenctfs only? 

What conjunctions may connect ehher sentences or mem.' 
bers of sentences ? 

Which are theythat may also connect single words ? 

When nouns and pronouns are connected by conjunc- 
tions, what rule must be observed? 

Are the words used as conjunctions, ever employed as 
other parts of speech ? 

Give examples. 

What is a simple sentence? 

What is a compound sentence ? 

What is an interjection ? 

When is the word that a relative pronoun ( 

When a demonstrative adjective pronoun ? 

When a demonstrative pronoun merely ? 

And when a conjunction ? 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
The boy improves very fast, because he applies well to 
his studies. Your son behaves so well that he pleases 
every person that sees him. The snow, falling from the 
houses, hurt that child very much. You employ all your 
lime in study and exercise; /"Ac^ strengthens the mind, and 
^'his the body. 



80 ETYMOLOGY 

Note. The prepositions ^^o and yb?* are frequently un- 
derstood; but they govern the objective case then, as 
well as when expressed, as you will perceive by the fol- 
lowing sentences. 

He gives a book to me. He gives me a book. We lend 
Ihem assistance. You give me many presents. 

Modesty makes large amends for the pain, it gives the 
persons, who labour under it, by the prejudice, it affords 
every worthy person in their favour. 

Note. In this last sentence, you will observe, that the 
relative which is understood twice : thcj^r^^^ after /mm, and 
is governed by givesy the second after fii^ejudice^ and is go- 
verned by fljfbrflf*, according to the latter part of Rule XI. 

The friends whom you treat politely, often call at your 
house; and they sometimes visit me, and my brothers and 
sisters. I often see good people txestowing charity on the 
poor. The rich, giving employment to the needy, afford, 
to the latter, the means of support, and keep them from 
idleness and dissipation. 

J will now give you a few general 

REMARKS ON CONJUNCTIONS. 

The same word is occasionally used both as a conjunc- 
lion and as an adverb ; and sometimes, as a preposition. 
" I rest, Mew, upon this argument:" thenis here a conjunc- 
tion : in the following phrase, it is an adverb: " He ar- 
rived ^/^en, and not before." " I submitted ; /or it wag 
vain to resist:" in this sentence, ybr is a conjunction; in 
the next it is a .preposition : "He contended ybr victory 
only." In the first of the following sentences, since is a 
conjunction ; in the second it is a preposition,; and in (he 
chird, an adverb: '* Since we must part, let us do it peace- 
ably;" '^ I have not seen him si^ice that t,ime;" "Our 
friendship commenced long since." 

Relative pronouns, as well 2c$> conjunctions, serve to con- 
nect sentences: as, "Blessed is the man who feareth the 
Lord, and keepeth his commandments." 

A relative pronoun possesses the force both of a pro- 
noun and a connective. Nay, the union by relatives is 
rather closer, than that by mere conjunctions. The latter 
may form two or more sentences into one; but, by the for- 
mer, several sentences may be incorporated into one and 
the same clause of a sentence- Th|is, " thou seest a man., 
%and he is called Peter," is a sentence consisting of twodis- 



AND SYNTAX. 8i 

tinct clauses, united by the copulative arid : but " the man 
"ivhom ihou seest is called Peter," is a sentence of one 
clause, and not less comprehensive than the other. 

Conjunctions very often unite sentences, when they ap- 
pear to unite only words ; as in tlie following instances: 
" Duty and interest forbid vicious indulgences ;'* *' Wis- 
dom or folly governs us." Each of these forms of expres- 
sion contains two sentences, namely ;" Duty forbids vi- 
cious indulgences; interest forbids vicious indulgences;'* 
"^ Wisdom governs us, or folly governs us." 

Though the conjunction is commonly used to connect 
sentences together, yet, on some occasions, it merely con- 
nects words, not sentences : as, " The king and queen are 
an amiable pair;" where the affirmation cannot refer to 
each ; it being absurd to say, that the kiiig or the queen 
ow/t/, is an amiable pair. So in the instances, "two and 
two are four ;" " the fifth and sixth Tolumes will com- 
plete the set of books." Prepositions also, as before ob- 
served, connect words ; but they do it to show the relation 
which the connected words have to each other : conjunc- 
tions when they unite words only, are designed to show 
the relations which those words, so united, have to other 
parts of the sentence. 

As there are many conjunctions and connective phrases 
appropriated to the coupling of sentences, that are never 
employed in joining the members of a sentence ; so there 
are several conjunctions appropriated to the latter use, 
which are never employed in the former ; and some that 
are equally adapted to both those purposes : as, again^fur- 
ther^ besides, isfc. of the first kind ; than, lest, unless, that, 
?o that, iP'c. of the second ; and dut, and, Jo?', there/ore, 
'<Sfc. of the last. - 

Conjunctions are those parts of language, which, by 
joining sentences in various ways, mark the connexion, 
and various dependences, of human thought. And there- 
fore, if our thoughts be really connected and mutually de- 
pendent, it is most likely, (as every man in speaking and 
writing wishes to do justice to his ideas,) that conjunctions 
will be employedj to make that connexion, and those de- 
pendences obvious to ourselves, and to others. And where 
there is, in any discourse, a remarkable deficiency of con- 
necting particles, it may be presumed, either that there is 
a want of connexion, or that sufficient pains have not been 
taken to explain it. 



82 ETYMOLOGY 

Relatives are not so useful in language, as conjunctions 
The former make speech more concise ; the later make 
it more explicit. Relatives comprehend the meaning of a 
pronoun and conjunction cofiulative ; conjunctions, while 
Ihey coii/ile sentences, may also express opposition, infer- 
ence, and many other relations and dependences. 

Till men began to think in a train, and to carry their 
reasonings to a considerable length, it is not probable that^ 
they would make use of conjunctions, or of any other con- 
nectives. Ignorant people, and children, generally speak 
in short and separate sentences. The same thing is true 
of barbarous nations : and hence uncultivated languages 
are not well supplied with connecting particles. The 
Greeks were the greatest reasoners that ever appeared 
in the world ; and their language, accordingly, abounds 
more than any other in connectives. 

Conjunctions are not equally necessary in all sorts of 
writing. In poetry, where great conciseness of phrase is 
required, and every appearance of formality avoided, many 
of ihem would have a bad effect. In passionate language 
too, it may be proper to omit them : because it is the na- 
ture of violent passion, to speak rather in disjointed sen- 
tences, than in the way of inference and argument. Books 
of aphorisms, like the Proverbs of Solomon, have few 
vconnectives, because they instruct^ not by reasoning, but 
in detached observations. And narrative will somelin>es 
appear very graceful, when the circumstances are plainly 
told, with scarcely any other conjunction than the simple 
copulative awo?; which is frequently the case in the histo- 
rical parts of Scripture. — When narration is full of images 
or events, the omission of connectives may, by crowding 
the principal words upon one another, give a sort of pic- 
ture of hurry and tumult, and so heighten the vivacity of 
description. But when facts are to be traced down througli 
their consequences, or upwards to their causes ; when the 
complicated designs of mankind are to be laid open, or 
conjectures offered concerning them ; when the historian 
argues. either for the elucidation of truth, or in order to 
state the pleas and principles of contending parties ; there 
will be occasion for e^ery species of connective, as much 
as in philosophy itself. In fact, it is in argument, investi- 
gation, and science, that this part of speech is peculiarly 
and indispensably necessary, 



AND SYNTAX. 



CONVERSATION XIII 



Tutor, I have now noticed all the different parts ot 
speech, and have shown you some of the relations in sen- 
tences ; and I have also furnished you with information 
sufficient to enable you to parse them in those relations. 
But there are several other relations, which you do not 
yet understand. 

George. If those which remain, are not more difficult 
than those we have had, I think we shall easily compre- 
hend them. 

Tutor, Be patient, and make yourself completely ac- 
quainted with whatever I tell you, as we advance, and all 
difficulties will give way before you. 

When I spoke of the conjunction in the last Conversa- 
tion, I told you that some connect single vjords. When the 
copulative conjunction and^ connects two or more actors, 
you may perceive that the verb, which is used to declare 
the action, expresses the action o{ both or all the actors, 
and is therefore ?i plural verb: as, the hoy and his sister 
study — not studies. The man and horse walk — not -walks; 
because the ytvh^ study and walk in each example, express 
the action of both the nominatives, and it must therefore 
be plural. But, if I say, the boy or his sister, I must use 
the verb studies, in the singular number. The manor 
horse walks. 

Caroline. I see the difference very clearly ; for when 
the disjunctive conjunction or, is used, the expression does 
not mean that both nominatives act toi^ether, but that only 
one acts : it means, that the boy studies, or his sister stu- 
dies ; but that they do not both study. A.nd in the other 
sentence, the meaning is, that either the man walks, or 
the horse walks, but not both. 

George. And it is quite plain, that when the verb ex- 
l^presses a singlie action of an individual person or thing, it 
fmust'be of the singular number, as well as the noun, when 
that denotes a single person or thing. But when the co- 
pulative conjunction is used, the sense is quite different;^ 
the verb then expresses the action of all the actors. 




84 ETYMOLOGY 

Tutor. Very well. I perceive that you begin to under- 
stand something of your subject. I will give you a rule 
concerning this nrjatter. 

RULE XV. 

When two or more nouns ^ or nouns and fironouns of the 
singularnumber^ are connected by a copulative cow; wwc/ior?, 
expressed or understood^ they must haveverbs^ nouns, and 
pronouns in the plural number to agree with them ; but 
when they are connected by a disjunctive conjunctio7i, they 
must ha-ve verbs, nouns, and pronouns in the singular num- 
ber to agree with them. 

Caroline. Will you please to illustrate this rule by a 
few examples, showing us why the nouns and pronouns 
must be plural, when other nouns or pronouns are connect- 
ed by a copulative conjunction, and why they must be sin- 
gular, when such other nouns or pronouns are connected 
by a conjunction disjunctive. 

Tutor. I will. George a?2c? William, w^o obey their ^di- 
ther, are dutiful sons. In this sentence, the relative who 
is third person, plural, because its two antecedents, 
George and William, are connected by the copulative con- 
junciion and ; therefore, the verb obey, must he plural, to 
agree with who ; and the adjective pronoun their, is plural 
for the same reason that w/iois; are is plural, to agree 
with its two nominatives George and William; and sons is 
plural, because it means both George and William. 

But let us use the disjunctive or. George or William 
who obeys his father is a dutiful son. Here you perceive, 
that the verbs, nouns, and pronouns must be singular. 

George. These examples sufficiently illustrate the rule, 
and I now perfectly comprehend it. 

Tutor. I will now give an exception to the first part of 
Ibis rule. When a distributive adjective pronoun belongs 
to each of the nominatives, the verbs, nouns, and pro- 
nouns must be in the singular number ; as, every man, 
and every i>oy, exerts himself. Sometimes an adjective 
pronoun is used with the first noun, and is understood 
with those that follow : as, every leaf, and twig, and drop 
of water, ?eems with life. 

George. 1 see the propriety of this exception to the 
general rule, because, although several things are referred 
to, yet each is taken separately, and the verb agrees with 
each nominative separately. The sense is, that, Every 



AND SYNTAX 
ais, every twig teems, every drop of water teems, 



.;c. 



Titt^^r. 'Fbat is right. And when you parse such sen- 
tences, supply a verb for each nominative, as you have 
now. 

I will now give you another rule. 

RULE XVI. 

j\''(juns and ^irenouns in apposition^ must be i7i the (same 
case, 

Caroline. What is meant by appositio?i ? 

Tutor. Appositi^m.^ in grammar, means the addition of 
another name for the same person or thing: as, '^ Watts, 
the merchant, sells goods." 

In this sentence you understand, that Watts is the name 
of the man, and merchant is another name for the same 
person ; therefoi^e merchant is in apposition to Watts, or 
another noun in addition to Wattfi, and must be in the same 
case. Sometimes several nouns or pronouns are used in 
addition to the first, and then they are all in apposition to 
the first. 

The propriety of the two nouns' being in the s^me case 
you must readily perceive; because, if Watts sells goods, 
the merchant sells goods — for both nouns mean the same 
person, and, therefore, both are in the nominative case to 
the verb sells. 

Again, " I saw Phelps the tailor.^* Now it is plain that, 
when I saw Phelps, I saw the tailor i for Phelps was the 
tailor; therefore the noun ^az7or is in the objective case, 
and is in apposition to Phelps, and is governed by the tran- 
sitive verb saw, according to Rule V6th. 
, George. This rule will be easily remembered, because 
thejreason of it is plain. 

Tutor. It is so : and you will find it of use to you in 
your writing and conversation, as it will guard you again^ 
such errors as the following :—" Love your Maker, he 
that made you." " You should honour your parents^ they 
that nourish and protect you." " Give the book to my* 
brother, he whom you saw here to-day»" 

In the £rst of these sentences, he is wrong; because it 
stands'for Maker; which is in the objective c^se and govern- 
ed by love; therefore Ae must be changed irito him, in ap- 
position to 3/a^er. ^w 

In the second example they must be changed into them, 
in apposition io parents, and governed by-honour. In the 

H 



86 ETYMOLOGY 

third example he must be changed into Am, in appositioir 
to brother, and governed by the preposition to.- 

Caroline. I think we shall find no difficulty in remem- 
bering the application ^f this rule; but I hope you will 
give us some examples of its application in our next par- 
sing lesson, for I find that it is parsings that illustrates the 
proper connexions of the words, and makes us remember 
them. 

Tutor. I will now ask you a few questions, and then I 
will give you some exercises in parsing. 

QUESTIONS. 

When nouns and pronouns of the singular number, are 
connected by a copulative conjunction, of what number 
must verbs, nouns, and pronouns be to agree with them ? 

Is there any exception to this ? 

What is it ? 

What is the rule when nouns and pronouns of the sin- 
gular number are disjunctively connected ? 

How do you parse nouns and pronouns in apposition ? 

What is meant by apposition ? 

How do you parse noens and pronouns, coming together 
and signifying different things ? See Rule II. 

When is an adjective used substantively ? 

Of what number is it when so used ? 

How many eases have nouns and pronouns 

What are they ? 

How do you distinguish them ? 

In which case does the noun vary ? 

How docs it vary ? 

How many persons have nouns ? 

How many have pronouns ? 

Decline the three persons of the personal pronouns 

How many kinds of adjective pronouns are there I 

What are they? Repeat them. 

Which of them are declinable ? 

Decline the relative who. 

Are which and that declinable ? 

How many parts of speech may that be used for ■ 

When is it a relative ? 

When is it a demonstrative adjective pronoun ? 

When is it a demonstrative pronoun merely ? 

When is it a conjunction ? 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

The generous never recount their deeds of charity j no^ 



AND SYNTAX. 87 

die brave, their feats of valour. That man whom you see, 
bestows more benefits on the poor, than any other whom 
I know. My neighbour has two sons, William and John. 
Phelps, the tailor, works for me. You honour your pa- 
rents, them who protect and educate you. John Stiles, 
the attorney, pleads ray cause against Tom Nokes, who 
pleads for my adversary, the broker. A contented mind 
and a good conscience make a man happy in all conditions. 
Prudence and pei'severance overcome all obstacles. What 
thin partitions sense from thought divide! The sun that 
rolls over our heads, the food that we receive, and the rest 
that we enjoy, daily admonish us of a superior and super- 
intending power. Idleness and ignorance produce many 
vices. Either his pride or his folly disgusts us. Every 
twig,* every leaf, and every drop of water, teems with life. 
None more impatiently suffer injuries, than they that 
most frequently commit them. 

Note. When nouns and pronouns of different persons 
are connected by a copulative conjunction, the verbs must 
agree in person, with the second^ in preference to the 
z/izrc?, and with Xhejirst in preference to either. 

EXAMPLES. 

He and thou study well — He and thou, and I labour 
much. 

In the first sentence study is in the second person plu- 
ral. It is jilural agreeably to Rule 15th, because its two 
nominatives are connected by and^ and the second person 
agreeably to this note. In the second sentence, labour is 
of the^^r*^ person, plural^ according to the same rule and 
:Kjte. 



CONVERSATION XIV. 



Tutor. I shall commence this Conversation, by explain- 
ing to you what is called the nominative case indefiendent. 
All the nouns and pronouns which you have yet parsed in 
the nominative case, have had a verb, you know, to agree 
with them ; therefore in parsing such, you have said they 
were in the nominative case to the verb. But a noun, or 
pronoun, may be so used, that it can have no verb to agree 

* See page 58, 11 lijiqs froiB th^ bottom. 



^S ETYMOLOGV 

-with it, and still be in the nominative case. This frequen; 
ly happens, when we make a direct address to a pevso? 
or thing : as, "George, I wish you wtjuld study more.' 
*' Caroline,Avill you give me your book r" 

In these sentences, you perceive that the two nouns. 
George and Caroline, have no verb to agree with them 
therefore they cannot be nominatives to any verbs ; anc: 
you also perceive tliat they are not in the possessive c 
objective case; but they must be in one of the three c? 
ses. The rule then, for such a construction, is, 

RULE XVII. 

When a direct address is made^ the noiiiiy or p.ronou/i^ r 

2?2 ^Ae WOmma^iX'e Case INDEPENDENT. 

George. The nominative case independent, then, must 
always be of the second person; because the rule says,-^ 
AVhen a direct address is made, 8cc. — and when we make a 
direct address^ the person or thing we speak to, is of the 
second person. 

Tutor. Right. The nominative independent, is alway 
in the second person; but you must observe, that a nomi- 
native of the second person is not always independent : 
it is independent only, when it has no verb to agree with 
it. And what is meant by its being independent^ is, that it 
is independent of any verb. All your otiier nominatives 
Lave had verbs to agree with them, and therefore they 
were 7iot independent. 

Caroline. Will you give us a few examples to parse un- 
der this rule ? 

Tutor. Yes ; you may parse these : 

" George, Caroline studies better than you." 

" Caroline, you understand this rule t]uite Avell.'' 

*' Boy, I love you for your good conduct," 

I shall give you more examples under this rule, in the 
next exercises for parsing. There are now remaining 
four or five rules more, which you must understand, be- 
fore you can parse o// tlie different constructions of the 
English language; b\it I shall defer the explanation of 
these, till I shall have giveft you the Moods aiul Tenses of 
Ihe verbs, and made you acquainted with the Passive and 
Neuter verbs ; because the remaining rules cannot be sg- 
explained, that you can understand them before. 

Before I say more, however, I v.ill give you ■sojine 



AND SYNTAX. .39 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

You, and I, and my cousin, meet here daily. 

I saw you yesterday writing a letter. 

You see rae now teaching you. 

Caroline hears George reciting his lesson. 

Some persons behave well, others ill. 

Two and three make five. 

One and one make two. 

Two persons perform more work than one. 

One likes not ill treatment. 

Boys, you do your work very well. 

Those who labour with diligence succeed in business j 
but the idle and vicious come to poverty. 

Note. The word ivhat frequently has the sense of that 
ivhich^ and those which, and then it must be parsed as a 
compound pronoun, including both the antecedent and the 
relative. In this construction, that is a demonstrative pro- 
noun. I will illustrate this by a few 

EXAMPLES. 

I like what you dislike. That is, I like that, which you 
dislike. 

What pleases me, displeases you. What we have, we 
prize not to the worth, while wc enjoy it. 

You will find, that the prepositions to and for are fre^ 
^uently understood : as in these 

EXAMPLES. 

He gave me a book. He bought me a present. That 
as, He bought for me a present. He gave to me a book. 
Her father bought her a present, which she gave her 
friend. 

Modesty makes large amends for the pain it gives the 
persons who labour under it, by the prejudice it affords 
every worthy person in their favour. 

Having explained to you all the different parts of speech, 
and nearly all their different grammatical relations, I will, 
before I proceed further, give you some 

REMARKS XW DERIVATION. 

Words are derived from one another in various ways, 
ariz. 

L Substantives are derived from verbso 



2. Verbs are derived from substantives, adjectives, and 
sometimes from adverbs. 

3. Adjectives are derived from substantives. 

4. Substantives are derived from adjectives. 

5. Adverbs are derived from adjectives, 

1. Substantives are derived from verbs: as, from "to 
love,'* comes '-lover;'* from "to visit, visiter;" from 
*' to survive, surviver ;" Sec. 

In the following instances, and in many others, it is diffi- 
cult to determine, whether the verb was deduced from the 
noun, or the noun from the verb, r/z. "Love, to love; 
hate, to hate; fear, to fear; sleep, to sleep ; walk, to walk; 
3'ide, to ride ; act, to act ;" &c. 

2. Verbs are derived from substantives, adjectives, and 
sometimes from adverbs: as, from the substantive s«/? 
comes, " to salt ;" from the adjective <rr«7'w, V' to warm ;" 
and from the adverbybrwar^f, "■ to forward." Sometimes 
they are formed by lengthening the vowel, or softening 
the consonant :^ as, from " grass, to graze ;" sometimes by 
adding f'w ; as, from "length, to lengthen ;'* especially to 
adjectives: as, from " short, to shorten;'* "bright, to 
brighten." 

3. Adjectives are derived from substantives, in the fol- 
lowing manner : Adjectives denoting plenty, are derived 
from substantives by adding y ; as, from " Health, healthy ; 
wealth, wf^althy ; might, mighty," Sec. 

Adjectives denoting the matter out of which any thing is 
siiade, are derived from substantives by adding €n : as, 
from " Oak, oaken ; wood, wooden ; wool, woollen,'* &c. 

Adjectives denoting abundance, are derived from sub- 
stantives by adding /w/ : as, from " Joy, joyful ; sin, sin- 
ful; fruit, fruitful," See. 

Adjectives denoting plenty, but with some kind of dimi- 
nution, re derived from substantives, b'y adding some : as, 
from " Light, lightsome ; trouble, troublesome ; toil, toil- 
aome," Sec. 

Adjectives denoting want, are derived from substantives, 
by adding less: as, from " Worth, worthless;" from "care, 
careless; joy, joyless," 8cc, 

Adjectives denoting likeness, are derived from substan- 
tives, by adding ly : as, from " Man, manly ; earth, earth- 
ly ; court, courtly," 8ce. 

Some adjectives are derived from other adjectives, or 
from substantives, by adding ish to them ; which termlna- 



AND'SYNTAX. 91 

tion, when added to adjective&, imports diminution, or les- 
sening the quality : as, "White, whitish;" i. e. some- 
what white. When added to substantives, it s^ignifies si- 
militude, or tendency to a character: as, "Child, child- 
ish; tliief, thievish." 

Some adjectives are formed from substantives or verbs, 
by adding the termination able; and those adjectives sig- 
nify capacity : as, " Answer, answerable ; to change, 
changeable." W^ 

4. Substantives are derived from adjectives, sometimes 
by adding the termination 7ze5\9 ; as, " White, whiteness; 
swift, swiftness :" sometimes by adding th or r, and making 
a small change in some of the letters : as, " Long, length ; 
high, height." 

5. Adverbs of quality are derived from adjectives, by 
adding ly^ or changing le into ly; and denote the same 
quality as the adjectives from which they are derived -. as, 
from "base," comes "basely;" from "slow, slowly;" 
from " able, ably." 

There are so many other ways of derivirig words from 
one another, that it would be extremely difficult, and 
nearly impossible, ;to enumerate them. The primitive 
words of any language are very fev/ ; the derivatives form 
much |he greater numbisr. A few more instances only 
can be given here. ^ ■ 

Some substantives are derived from other substantives, 
by adding the terminations hood or head, skifi^ ery, xuick^ 
ricky f/o;n, ian^ inent^ and age. 

Substantives ending in hood ov heady are such as signify 
character or qualities : as, " Manhood, knighthood, false- 
hood," Sec. 

Substantives ending in *yi//z,are those that signify office, 
employment, state, or condition : as, " Lordship, stew- 
ardship, partnership," Sec. Some substantives in shihy3.Yt 
derived from adjectives: as, '^ Hard, hardship," Sec. 

Substantives which end in ery^ signify action or habit : 
as, " Slavery, foojery, prudery," &c. Some substantives 
of this sor.t come from adjectives t as, " Brave, bravery," 
&;c. • 

Substantives ending in wic/cy rick, and do?n, denote do- 
minion, jurisdiction, or condition : as, " Bailiwick, bishop- 
rick, kingdom, dukedom^ freedom," Sec. 

Substantives which end in ian^ are those that signify 
profession: as, " Physician, musici in," &c. Those that 
end in ment and a^e, come generally from the French, anjd 



i)^ ETVMOLOGY 

commonly signify the act or habit: as, " Commandment, 
usage." 

Some substantives ending in ar^, are derived from verbs 
or adjectives, and denote character or habit : as, " Drunk, 
drunkard ; dote, dotard." 

Some substantives have the form of diminutives; but 
these are not many. They are formed by adding tlve ter- 
minations kin^ iing^ ing^ ock^ ei^ and the like : as, '* Lamb, 
lambkin ; goose, gosling; duckpduckling; hill, hillock ; 
cock, cockerel," &c. 

That part of derivation which consists in tracing English 
words to the Greek, Latin, French, and other languages, 
must be omitted. The best English dictionaries will, 
however, furnish some information on this head. The 
learned Home Tooke, in his " Diversions of Purley," 
has given an ingenious account of the derivation and mean- 
ing of many of the adverbs, conjunctions, and prepositions: 
and as you will doubtless be amused, by tracing to their 
Saxon origin some of these words, I shall present you 
with a list or specimen of them ; which I presume will be 
sufficient to excite your curiosity, and induce you to ck- 
amme the subject more extensively. 

ABOUT— is derived from «, on, and bout-, signifying boun- 
dary: On the boundary or confines. 

AMONG or AMONGST — coiues from the passive participle^*?- 
mcenced^ which is from gemengan^ to mix, 

AND — is from the imperative an-ad^ which is from the 
xcvh^ anan-ad^ signifying to accumulate, to add to : 
as, "Two and two are four;" that is, "Two add 
two are four." 

SUNDER — comes from the participle asundred of the verb 
asundrian^ io separate: and this verb is from Sond^ 
sand. 

ATHWART — is derived from the passive participle athweo- 
ritd oi the verb atlnveorian^ to wrest. 

BEYOND — comes from be-geond: geond, or goned, H the 
passive participle of the y&vh gangan^ to go, to pass : 
Be passed, be gone. 

BUT — from the imperative ^o;, of tlie verb botdn^ to boot, 
to superadd, to supply: as, "The number three is 
not an even number, but an odd ; that is, not an even 
number, superadd^ (it is) an odcj iKimber." 

23UT — from the imperative, ^^-w/aw, of the verb beon-utan^ 
to be out It is used by way of exception : as, *' She 



AND SYNTAX. 93 

regards nobodv, but him ;" that is, nobody be out 
him." 

F — comes from gif-, the imperative of the verb gifan^ to 
j^ivc : as, " If you live honestly, you will live happi- 
ly ;'' that is, '■'■ give you live honestly." 

t. EST— -from the participle, lescd^ of the verb lesan.^ to dis- 
miss. 

THOUGH — from thafig^ the imperative of the \Qvh thajigan^ 
to allow : as, " Though she is handsome, she is not 
vain :" that is, " Alloiv^ grants she is handsome." 

i/XLESs-*~comes from onles^ the invperative of ihe verb on- 
lesu77, to dismiss or remove : as, " Troy will be ta- 
ken unless the palladium be preserved ;" that is, 
"Remove the palladium be fireserved^ Troy will be 
taken." 

WITH — the imperative of ivithan^ to join : as, " A house 
with a party-wall ;" that is, " A house join a party- 
wall." 

WITHOUT — comes from wyrth-utan^ the imperative of the 
verb nvyrthan-utan^ to be out: as, " A house without 
a roof;" that is, " A houac be out a roof." 

YET—- is derived from get,, the imperative of the verb ge- 
tan, to get: as, "Yet a little while;" that is, " Get a 
little time." 

J'HROUGH — -comes from Gothic and Teutonic words, which 
signify door, gate, passage: as, "They marched 
through a wilderness ;" that is, " They ma:rched the 
/lassage a wilderness." 

FOR — is from Saxon and Gothic words, signifying, cause, 
motive : as, " He died for his religion ;" that is, 
" He died, the cause his religion." 

TROM — is derived from frum, which signifies beginning, 
origin, source, 8icc. ; as, "The lamp hangs yVom the 
ceiling;" that is, " Ceiling the place of beginning to 
hang." 

TO — comes from Saxon and Gothic Words, ^vhich signify 
action, effect, termination, to act, &c. : as, "Figs 
com eyro7?z Turkey 7o England :" that is, " Figs come 
— beginning 'Vwvkty-- Termination England. 

It is highly probable that the system of the acute gram- 
marian, from whose Work these Saxon derivations are 
borrowed, is founded on truth; and that adverbs, prepo- 
sitions, and conjunctions, are corruptions or abbreviations 
of other parts of speech. But as many of them arc deri- 



Lii 



94 ETYMOLOGY 

xed from obsolete words in our own language, or from wordb 
in kindred languages, the radical meaning of which is, 
therefore, either obscure, or generally unknown ; as the 
system of this very able etymologist is not universally ad- 
mitted; and as, by long prescription, whatever may have 
been their origin, the words in question appear to have 
acquired a title to the rank of distinct species ; it seems 
proper to consider them, as such, in an elementary trea- 
tise of grammar : especially as this plan coincides with that, 
by which other languages must be taught ; and will ren- 
der the study of them less intricate. It is of small mo- 
ment, by what name and classification we distinguish these 
words, provided their meaning and use are well under- 
stood. A philosophical consideration of the subject, may, 
with great propriety, be entered upon by the grammatical 
student, when his knowledge and judgment become more 
improved. 



CONVERSATION XV. 



OF THE MOODS AND TENSES OF VERBS. 

Tutor. I will now commence the explanation of the 
moods and tenses of the verbs. 

Mood or Mode, is a particular form of the verb, show- 
ing the 9nanner in which the action is represented. It con- 
sists in the change which the verb undergoes, to signify 
various intentions of the mind, and various modificatipns 
and circumstances of action. Thus, the expressions, I 
nvalk — Ifliualk — I may or can walk — To walk — Walk thou 
— are all different moods or modes of expressing the same 
action. 

George. I perceive a difference between these five 
forms of expression. I nvajk^ expresses positively what 
I do'. If I walky does not declare positively, but it ex- 
presses doubt. / may or cati ivalk^ does not declare 
that \ do walk; nor does it express a doubt^ but it 
shows, that I am at liberty to walk, or that I am able to 
walk. And the fourth expression, to walk, is different 
from the other three: this simply expresses an action 
without a nominative. And the fifth, w^/X: Mpw, is differ- 



AND SYNTAX. &5 

cnt from all the others; it simply commands a second per- 
son to, do the action. 

Tutor. Very well; your distinctions are quite correct. 

Caroline, Are there no more than five forms, or 
moods ? 

Tutor. No : English verbs have but five moods. 

George. What are the names of these different moods ? 

Tutor. Indicative, Subjunctive, Potential, Infini- 
nvE, and Imperative. 

I will now explain the Indicative Mood to you ; and you 
will perceive, that nearly all the verbs that you have hi- 
therto parsed, have been in this mood. 

When a Verb makes a direct affirmative, or asks a ques- 
tion, it is in the Itstdicative Mood : as, " He walks, he 
walked, he will walk:" or, " Does he walk? Did he 
walk? Will he walk?" 

This mood is called Indicative^ because, generally, this 
form of the verb simply indicates^ or declares the action. 

I shall, in the next Conversation, explain to you the 
other moods, and show you how they differ from the indi- 
cative. With this^ therefore, you must make yourselves 
very familiar, that you may the more clearly see how the 
others differ from this, and from one another. . 

Tense means time, or the distinction of time. Every 
action must be done in some time, either in fiast^ present^ 
ov future time. You perceive, then, there are three 
grand divisions of time, viz. F^ast^ Present, 2ind Future. 

When I say, / nvalk^ walk is a verb in the indicative 
mood, present tense or time; but when I say, / walked — 
I have walked — I had walked — the verbs are in the indica- 
tive mood, fiast tense; and the expressions, I shall or will 
walk, or / shall have walked, put the verb in the future 
tense, because these expressions indicate actions to be 
done hereafter, in some future time. 

You will observe, that the three expressions in past 
time, are all different, viz. walked — have walked — had 
walked — so that there are three distinct tenses, or distinc- 
tions, of the past time. These are called Imfierfect, Per- 
fect^ and Plufierfect. 

And now observe those that indicate future time, and 
you will perceive ?wp distinctions of the future time, viz. 
sliall or will walk — and, shall have walked. These are 
r^W^d. First Future, dindi Second Future itnsQ?,, 

The Indicative Mood, then, has six tenses, or distinc- 



lkhdu>.> 



96 ETYMOLOGY 

tions of time, viz. Present^ Imfierfect^ Perfecty Plufierftt 
and Pir St 2ir\d Second Puture. 

Th^ Subjunctive has also the same si:r tenses. 

The Potential has four, viz. the Present, Xhe Imper- 
fect, the Perfect, and Pluperfect. 

The Infinitive has tioo, the Present and Perfect. 

The Imperative has one, the Present. 

I Avill directly explain to you, how all the tenses of the 
indicative mood are formed and distinguished : but before 
I do that, I must inform you, that verbs are either regular 
or irregular, and explain to you the difference between 
those which are called regular, and those caWQiXirregular. 

The verbs which form their imperfect tense, and per- 
fect or passive participles, by adding either rf, or ed, to 
the present tense, are regular; and those which form their 
imperfect tense, and perfect or passive participles other- 
wise, are irregular. Take the regular verb love, for ex- 
ample : as, 

D . ^^ T A f . Perfect, ov Passive 

Present lense. Imherfect. r> .- i i 

-' •^ Particijile. 

I love, I loved, loved. 

Here you perceive that the i?7?/2f?;/<?c^ tense, and the per- 
fect participle, are formed by adding d to the present 
tense, /ox^e; but when the present tense does not end in 
e, ed must be added to form the imperfect tense and, per- 
fect participle of regular verbs : as, 

^ m T ^ X' Perfect, ov Passive 

Present Tense. Imfierject. "^ p . ... 

I walk, I walked, walked. 

I labour, I laboured, laboured. 

But observe how the following form their imperfect 
tense, and perfect participle: 

^ . r. Perfect, or Passive: 

Present, Imjiertect. „ , . .. , 

-' ^ Particijile. 

I write, I wrote, written. 

I beat, I beat, beaten. 

I teach, I taught, taught. 

These are irrc^w/ar verbs. 

When I first explained the Participle to you, in a for- 
mer Conversation, I told you there were three participles, 
viz. the present yXhQ perfect^ and the compound perfect 



AND SYNTAX. 97 

i'he preaeni^ ov active particifile^ I explained then: you. 
now have the perfect ; and the comfiound fierfect is formed 
by placing hai)ing^ before \.\\% perfect participte. 

The three participles, then, of the verb love^ labour, 
reach ^ are, 

Present. Perfect. Comfiound Perfect. 

Lovin,2;. Loved. Having loved. 

Teaching. Taught. Having taught. 

Labouring. Laboured. Having laboured. 

You will perceive, that the imperfect tense, and per- 
fect participle, of all r^^w/ar verbs, and of many irregular 
verbs, are spelled alike. 

George. I have observed, that the verbs love and teachy 
TCidLkQlovM^nd taught^ in the imperfect and participle; 
loved and taught^ then, are sometimes verbs in the imper- 
fect tense, and sometimes perfect or passive participles. 
How shall we know when these words are verbs., and when 
fiarticiples ? 

Tutor, If you observe the conjugation of the verbs, you 
will perceive, that the imperfect tense of the verb has a no- 
minative, but the participle has none : as, 

Present. Imperfect. P erf ecf Participle. 

I teach, I taught, taught. 

I write, I wrote, written. 

Whenever you have a verb to parse, the first thing you 
must do, is, to find whether it is regular or irregular^ by 
conjuigating it in the Present -and the Imperfect tenses, and 
naming the perfect participle : as. 

Present. Imperfect. Perfect Participle, 

I speak. I spoke. Spoken. 

Present, Imperfect. Perfect Participle. 

I leave. I left. Left. 

Here you perceive, that the imperfect tense, and tlie 
participle of the verb leave, are spelled alike, but the ver^ 
has a nominative — the participle has not. : 

The conjugation of a verb, is the regular combination 
and arrangement of its several numbers, persons, moods, 
and tenses. Or it is coupling the verb with its nominative 
of the different numbers and persons, and making it agre^ 
with that nominatiye, through all the moods and tenses. 



t)a 



ETYMOLOGY 



I will now present to you the conjugation of the regular 
verb nvalk^ in the indicative mood. 



Indicative Mood. 



Present Tense. 

Singular. 
I walk, 

Thou walkest, 
He, she, or it walketh 
or walks. 

Plural. 
We walk, 
Ye or you walk, 
They walk. 



Perfect or 
pass, fiar" 
ticifile. 



Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. 
I walked, 
Thou walkedst, 
He, she, or it walked, ^walked 



Plural. 
We walked, 
Ye or you walked, 
They walked. 



To form the Perfect Tense., perfix have to the perfec 
participle : as, 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1 have walked. We have walked, 

Thou hast walked, Ye or you have walked, 

He, she, or it, hath or has They have walked. 

walked. 

To form the Pluperfect Tense, prefix had to the perfect 
participle : as. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1 had walked. We had walked. 

Thou hadst walked, Ye or you had walked. 

He, she, or it had walked. They had walked. 

To form the i^ir*^ Future Tense, prefix shall or ivill to 
the present tense : as, 

First Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

I shall or will walk. We shaH or will walk. 

Thou shalt or wilt walk, Ye or you shall or will walk? 

He shall or will walk. They shall or will walk. 

To form the Second Future Tense, prefix shall have or 
will have to the perfect participle : as, 



AND SYNTAX. 99 

Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

I shall have walked, We shall have walked, 

Thou wilt have walked, Ye or you will have walked, 

He will have walked. They will have walked. 

Now observe the Present and Imperfect Tenses. — ^ 
These are denoted by the simple verbs : I walk., thou 
^vulkest^ &C. in the present tense ; and I walked^ thou 
walkedst^ in the imperfect. These, therefore, are called 
sim/ile tenses. But the four other tenses, you perceive, 
are formed by the help of other words, called auxiliary 
verbsy or helfitng verbs. You must also remember, that 
when have, ov had^ is used as an auxiliary verb, it must be 
used with the participle, and not with the imperfect tense 
of the verb. 

All the tenses which are formed by auxiliary verbs are 
called comfiound tenses. 

I will now give you a list, which contains nearly all the 
irregular verbs in our language ; the others are, of course, 
regular^ and are to be conjugated like nvalk. 

Many verbs become irregular by contraction: as, 
'' feed, fed ; leave, left :" others, by the termination en: 
as, " fall, fell, fallen ;'* others, by the termination ght : as, 
"buy, bought; teach, taught," Sec, 

Now you can conjugate these verbs, in the Indicative 
Mood, through all the six tenses, with the personal pro- 
nouns in the different persons and numbers, as ivalk was 
conjugated : as. 

Present Tense. 

Abide 
.Ani 
Adse 
Awake 

Rear,;© bring forth bare 
Bear, to camj 
Beat 
Begin 
Bend 
Bereave 
Beseech 



Imperfect Tenie. 

abode 


Perf. or Pass. Part. 

abode 


was 


been 


arose 


arisen 


awoke, r. 


awaked 


h bare 


born 


bore 


borne 


beat 


beaten, beat 


began 
bent 


begun 
bent 


bereft, r. 


bereft 


besought 


besoiight 



KX) 



ETYMOLOGY 



Present, 


Imperfect. 


Perf.orPass. Far?> 


Bid 


bid, bade 


bidden, bid 


Bind 


bound 


bound 


Bite 


bit 


bitten, bit 


Bleed 


bled 


bled 


Blow 


blew 


blown 


Break 


broke 


broken 


Breed 


bred 


bred 


Bring 


brought 


brought. 


Build 


built 


built 


Burst 


burst 


bui^t 


Buy 


bought 


bought 


Cast 


east 


cast 


Catch 


caught, R. 


caught, R. 


Chide 


chid 


chidden^ chi4- 


Choose 


chose 


chosen 


Clc3iYG,io stick or I 
11 i 


- REGULAR, 




adhere ] 


) 




Cleave, to sjilit 


clove, or cleft 


cleft, clovei:. 


Cling 


clung 


clung 


Clothe 


clothed 


clad, R. 


Come 


came 


come 


Cost 


cost 


cost 


Crow 


crew, Re 


crowed 


Creep 


crept 


crept 


Cut 


cut 


cut 


X)are, to -venture 


durst 


dared 


'D?ire^R,tochalle?ige 




Deal 


dealt, R» 


dealt, R 


Dig 


dug, R. 


dug, R. 


Do 


did 


done 


Draw- 


drew 


drawn 


Drive 


drove 


driven 


Drink 


drank 


drunk 


Dwell 


dwelt, R. 


dwelt, R. 


Eat 


eat, or ate 


eaten 


Fall 


fell 


fallen 


Feed 


fed 


fed 


Feel 


felt 


felt 


Fight 


fought 


fought 


Find 


found 


found 


Flee 


fled 


fled 


Fling 


flung 


flung 


Fly 


flew 


flown 


forget 


forgot 


forgotten, forgo* 






¥1 



AND SYNTAX. 



iOl 



Present. 


Imperfect. 


Perf. or Pass. Part 


J 


Forsake 


forsook 


forsaken* 


t'f 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen 


J 


Get 


got 


gott 


1 


Gild 


gilt, R. 


gilt, R. 




Gird 


girt, R. 


girt, R. 




Give 


gave 


given 




Go 


went 


gone 




Grave 


graved 


graven, r. 




Grind 


ground 


ground 




Grow 


grew 


grown 




Have 


had 


had 




Hang 


hung, R. 


hung, R. 




Hear 


heard 


heard 




Hew 


hewed 


hewn, R. 




Hide 


hid 


hid, hidden 




Hit 


hit 


hit 




Hold 


held 


held 




Hurt 


hurt 


hurt 




Keep 


kept 


kept 




Knit 


knit, R. 


knit, R, 




Know 


knew 


known 




Lade 


laded 


laden 




Lay 


laid 


laid 




Lead 


led 


led 




Leave 


left 


left 




Lend 


lent 


lent 




Let 


let 


let 




Lie, to lie down 


lay 


lain 




Load 


loaded 


laden, r. 




Lose 


lost 


lost 




Make 


made 


made 




Meet 


met 


met 




Mow 


mowed 


mown, It. 




Pay 


paid 


paid 




Put 


put 


put 




Read 


read 


read 




Rend 


rent 


rent 




Rid 


rid 


rid 





* Walker observes, that Milton has avaHed hiraseif of the license of his art, (an «it a* 
apt to cornipt ^mmar, as it is to raise and adorn language,) to use the preterit ©f tfejis 
yerb for the pmrticiplei 



i Gotten 



'* Th' iraraortai mind that hsAh forsook 
Her mansion" 

is Aearly obsolete. Its eoinpound/dr^e»fti is sttU in gcod i^, 
I 2 * 



* a 



107 


ETYMOLOGY 




Present. 


Imperfect. 


Perf.or Pass. Pan 


Ride 


rode 


rode, ridden* 


Ring 


rung, rang 


rung ^ 


Rise 


rose 


risen 


Rive 


rived 


riven 


Run 


ran 


run 


Saw 


sawed 


sawn, R. 


Say 


said 


said 


See 


saw 


seen 


Seek 


sought 


sought 


Sell 


sold 


sold 


Send 


sent 


sent 


Set 


set 


set 


Shake 


shook 


shaken 


Shape 


shaped 


shaped, shapen 


Shave 


shaved 


shaven, r. 


Shear 


sheared 


shorn 


Shed 


shed 


shed 


Shine 


shone, r. 


shone, r. 


Show- 


showed 


shown 


Shoe 


shod 


shod 


Shoot 


shot 


shot 


Shrink 


shrunk 


shrunk 


Shred 


shred 


shred 


Shut 


shut 


shut 


Sing 


sung, sang 


sung 


Sink 


sunk, sank 


sunk 


Sit 


sat 


sat 


Slay 


slew 


slain 


Sleep 


slept 


slept 


Slide 


slid 


slidden 


Sling 


slung 


slung 


Slink 


slunk 


slunk 


Slit 


slit, R. 


slit, or slitted 


Smite 


smote 


smitten 


Sow . 


sowed 


sown, r. 


Speak 


spoke 


spoken 


Speed 


sped 


sped 


Spend 


spent 


spent 


Spill 


spilt, R. 


spilt, R. 


Spin 


spun 


spun 


Spit 


spit, spat 


spit, spittent 


Split 


spilt 


split 



f 



• £u2den is nearly obsolete, 
t S^Uten isn^rlyvbiolete. 



Sj^v^*^«9'«f'^>2;V-^/X" *'-'" 






AND SYNTAX. 



103 



m 



Prescflt. 


Imperfect. 




Perf. or Pass. Part. 


Spread 


Spread 




spread 


Spring 


sprung, sprang 


sprung 


Stand 


stood 




stood 


Steal 


stole 




stolen 


Stick 


stuck 




stuck 


Sting 


stung 




stung 


Slink 


stunk 




stunk 


Stride 


stt-ode or stride 


stridden 


Strike 


struck 




struck or stricken 


String 


strung 




strung 


Strive 


strove 




striven 


Strow or strew 


strowed or 


, C strow, strowed, 
strewed ^ ^J^^^^^^ 


Swear 


swore 




sworn 


Sweat 


swet, R. 




swet, R. 


Swell 


swelled 




swollen, Ro 


Swim 


swjum, swam 


swum 


Swing 


swung 




swung 


Take 


took 




taken 


Teach 


taught 




taught 


Tear 


tore 




torn 


Tell 


told 




told 


Think 


thought 




thought 


Thrive 


throve, r. 




thriven 


Throw 


threw 




thrown 


Thrust 


thrust 




thrust 


Tread 


trod 




trodden 


Wax 


waxed 




waxen, r. 


/Wear 


wore 




worn 


Weave 


wove 




woven 


Weep 


wept 




wept 


Win 


won 




won 


Wind 


wound 




wound 


Work 


wrought 




wrought or worked 


Wring 


wrung 




wrung 


Write 


wrote 




written 



In the preceding list, some of the verbs will be found to 
be conjugated regularly, as well as irregularly ; and those 
which admit of the regular form are marked with an r. 
There is a preference to be given to some of these, which 
custom and judgment must determine. Those preterits 
and participles, which are first mentioned in the list, seem 



^ 



104 ETYMOLOGY 

to be the most eligible. I have not inserted such verbs as 
are irregular only in familiar writing or discourse, and 
which are improperly terminated by t, instead of ed : 
as learntvspelt, spilt, Sec. These should be avoided in eve- 
ry sort of composition. It is, however, proper to observe, 
that some contractions of ed into r, are unexceptionable; 
and others, the only established forms of expression : as 
crept, dwelt, gilt, Sec. : and lost, felt, slept. Sec. These al- 
lowable and necessary contractions must therefore be 
carefully distinguished from those that are exceptionable. 
The words which are obsolete have also been omitted, that 
you might not be induced to mistake them for words, in 
present use. Such are, wreathen, drunken, holpen, mol- 
ten, gotten, holden, bounden. Sec: and svvang, wrang, 
slank, strawed, gat, brake, tare, ware, 8cc. 

I will now question you, to see if you remember what I 
have been saying. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is the conjugation of a verb ? 

What is the mood of a vei'b ? 

How many moods are there ? 

What are they called ? 

Which have I explained ? 

Why is this called iridicative^ 

What is the meaning o{ tense? 

How many tenses has the indicative mood i 

What are they called ? 

Which of these are past tenses ? 

Which are called sm/^/e tenses ? 

Which are called comjiouvd? 

Why are they called so ? 

Which tenses are formed on the perfect participle ? 

Which tense is formed on Xh^firesent? 

How is the imperfect formed? 

How is the perfect formed:* 

How the pluperfect ? 

How the first future ? 

How the second future ? 

What is the difierence between a regular and an irregu- 
lar verb? 

Can you now conjugate the verb sfieak^ in the indicative 
jnood, through all its tenses, persons, and numbers ? 

What is a participle ? 



AND- SYNTAX. 105 

How many kinds of participles are there ? 

What are they ? 

Can you. give me the present participles of the verbs, 
•fieakf run, go ^ ride? 

Can you give the perfect and compound perfect of these 
verbs ? 

How do you distinguish the perfect participle from the 
verb in the imperfect tense, when they are both spelled 
alike ? 

I will now give you a long lesson in parsing, that you 
Tnay become very familiar with the indicative mood, and 
ill its tenses, before I give you the other moods. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

In these exercises you will find the verbv in the indica- 
tive mood, in all its tenses, and the present, perfect, and 
compound perfect participles. 

In parsing the verb now, first tell whether it is regular 
©r irregular; secondly, whether transitive or intransitive ; 
thirdly, the mood and tense ; fourthly^ its person and num- 
T^er, and what it agrees with for its nominative, and then 
give the rule. 

I learn my lesson well. — Thou learnest thy lesson bad- 
ly-- — He learns his lesson soon. — ^We learn our lesson to- 
day. — Ye or you learn your lesson hastily. — They learn 
their lesson easily.— Learn I my lesson ?'—Learnest thou 
thy lesson ? — Learns he his lesson ? — Learn my lesson ?— * 
Learnest thy lesson? Learns his lesson? — Learn our les- 
son ?-— Learn your lesson ? — Learn their lesson ?•— I learn- 
ed grammar. — Thou learnedst thy lesson well.— He learned 
his task thoroughly. — Learned we the subject sufficiently. 
— Learned you your exercises yesterday? — Learned they 
their pieces perfectly ? 

RULE XVIII. 

The passive fiarticip-le, unconnected with an auxiliary, be- 
longs, like an adjective, to sojne noun or fironoun, expressed 
or understood. 

I see a child well taught. — I saw a boy badly beaten.— 
Thou seest nie sorely afflicted. — Thou sawest a letter 
slovenly written.— He sees a child wilfully abused. — H« 
saw you ill treated. — Some pieces of wood, curiously 
carved, floated ashore. — We, teaching the class, talk a 
great deal. — The m^n, having finished their work, went 
abroad .-«-The boys, having learned their lesson, played- 



106 ETYMOLOGY 

— The workmen, ploughing the ground, broke the plough. 
— The men, having ploughed the field, leftil. — My neigh- 
bour bought a field vvell ploughed. — John Stiles purcha- 
sed a farm well cultivated.— He cultivates one well pur- 
chased. 

Who does that work ? — Who did this mischief? — Who 
saw that mischief done ?— Whom seel? — -Whom seest 
thou now? — Vv'hom sees he? — Whom see ye sometimes? 
Whom saw ye yesterday ? — Which lovest thou most ?■ — 
What dost thou to-day ?— I have a book. — Thou hast a 
pen. — ^He has money — We have gold.— Ye or you have 
houses. — They have propi^rty. 

What has he ?-r-What book has he? — 'Which book has 
he? — Which road takest thou here? — Whose house 
hirest thou ?-— Whose child teaches he ? — Us they teach. — 
Them we teach. — Her I instruct.— Thee he cheats.— I 
who teach you, love them — Thou who teachest me, lo- 
vest her. — He who teaches us, loves them. — We who teach 
the boys, love them. — You who teach the girl, love her.~ 
They who teach the daughter, love her mother. 

I, whom you commanded, loved your father once.— 
Thou, whom he taught, dost well. — Him, whom you see, 
I love still.—- Whom thou seest, hirn love I. — Them whom 
he whips, i pityi-— The book which I lost you found. — 
The book I lost, you found. — The money I lost, h*"- spent. 
— The house you built, I bought.- — I saw, to-day, the 
horse, you sokl. — Itaughttheboy you sent.- — They caught 
the thief, you suspected.— The boys the boy injures. — ^ 
The boy the boys injure, — The boy the boys carries. — - 
The boys the boy carry. — Thee whom they betray, we 
love. 

I have learned my task.— Thou has learned thy lesson. 
— He has learned his exercises.— He hath learned them. 
We have learned very slowly. — The man has seen liis son 
daily. — The men have seen their sons thrice.-- The pa- 
rents have clad their children Avarmly.—^I had seen him. — ^ 
Thou hast seen them often.-— I shall see you to-morrow. 
— -Thou wilt see me some days hence. — He will see thee 
twenty times. I shall have seen you ten times to-morrow. 
— -Thou wilt have seen her abused twice, perhaps ttirice, 
by-and-by. He will have finished his work to-morrow. 

You gave a book to me.— -You have given me a book. — 
He lent me some money.- — He has lent you a book.— Her 
fa- iter bought her a present, which she gave her friend.- — 
Tjiat man's brother and si$ter left him a fortune, which 



AND SYNTAX. lor 

he soon wasted.- — Whom, ye ignorantly worship, him 
declare I unto you. — Modesty makes large amends for 
the pain, it gives the persons who labour under it, by 
the prejudice, it affords every worthy person in their fa- 
vour. 

I invited his brother and him to my house. — Him and 
his friend I had setn before. — Him whom the master laught, 
your brother had taught before. — ^I shall sec him ijctore 
you arrive. — He will finish his studies first, because he 
commenced them before you. — Isaw her and her sister 
long since. — I have seen you since 1 saw her. — I walked 
before you, and your friend rode before me. — Some peo- 
ple have seen much more of the world than others.- — He 
has seen more years than I. — You labour more than he. 
—He came down stairs slowly, but he went briskly up 
again. 



CONVERSATION XVI. 



OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Tutor. You now understand the indicative mood, with 
all its tenses, so well, that you will find the other moods 
and their tenses very easily acquired. 

Caroline. We expected to find the moods and tenses of 
the verbs somewhat difficult to learn; but we now begin 
to think, that they are very easily understood and remem- 
bered. 

Tutor. If you listen attentively to what I say, and re- 
flect well upon it, I think you will readily comprehend 
every part of the subject. 

I will now proceed to explain the subjunctive mood. 

Wheti a verb is preceded by a word, or bywords, which 
express a CDndition, doubt, motive, wish, or supposition, it 
is in the Subjunctive Mood : as, 

He will injure his health, if he nvalk in the rain ; I will 
respect h'\v[i^ thoui^h he chide me; on condition that he 
come., I will consent to stay. 

George. I perceive, by your examples, that the third 
person singular of ihe veib, in iht subjunctive mood, pre- 
sent tense, has not the same termination, that it has in the 



108 ETYMOLOGY 

indicative. In the indicative, the verbs, which you have 
given, viz. ivalk^ chide^ come, would be ivalks, chides, corner. 
Tutor. That is true. The subjunctive mood does not 
vary the verb in the present tense. All the persons are 
like the first person singular, as you may see by these ex- 
amples : 

• 
Singular. Plural. 

If I come. If we come. 

If thou come. If ye or you come. 

If he come. If they come. 

You will conjugate all verbs, in the subjunctive present, 
in the same manner. But in the subjunctive imfierfect, 
perfect, filufierfect^Jirst future, ?,x\d secondfuture, the verb 
is conjugated just as it is in those tenses of th€ indicative 
mood ; except that will and wilt are not used in the sub- 
junctive second future, and that a conjunction, expressing 
a condition, doubt, 8cc. is used before it, as you have seen, 
in the examples I have given you. The subjunctive se- 
cond future of the verb coine, is conjugated thus : 

Singular JVumher. Plural JVumber. 

If I shall have come. If we shall have come. 

If thou shalt have come. If ye or you shall have come 

If he shall have come. If they shall have come. 

And all others in the same manner, 

George. I now see Ihut the difference between the^ 
conjugation of the verb in the indicative mood, and In the 
subjunctive, is only in the present tense, and the second 
future. In the present, it does not vary on account of the 
person of its nominative, as it does in the indicative.; and 
in the second future, will and ivilt are not used j but shall 
and shalt. 

Tutor. That is right. 

Caroline. I suppose any conjunction, that expresses a 
condition, doubt, motive, &c. may be used, in conjugating 
the verb in the subjunctive mood, as well as if. 

Tutor. Certainly. You may use though, whether, u?i- 
less, lestf^c. but these being longer words, are not so con- 
venient in conjugating the verb as if. 

George. I believe we now know how to form all the 
tenses of this mood, and we know how it differs from the in- 
dicative j but we do not yet know why it is called subjunc' 
tives 



AND SYNTAX^ 109 

'luiu7\ To subjoin^ means to. add at the end ; or to add 
afterwards. Subjunctive^ means subjoined to something 
else.. Now observe the manner in which the verb is used, 
when in the subjunctive mood. " Pie will perform, if ho, 
/zromz-se/" " I shall be satisfied, ^r/^ow,§'/^ hefaily if ha try to 
perform." . Here you see that the verbs in the subjunc- 
tive mood, are preceded by conjunctions, expressing con- 
dition or doubt, and are subjoh;ed to other verbs: that is, 
they are used in the latter member of a compound sen- 
tence; and the cortjunctions connect the two members of 
the compound senter^ce to\:^eiher. But sometimes such 
sentences are inverted, and the member in which the sub- 
junctive mood is used, is placed frsi: as, If\\t firomise<f 
we will perform ;". " Though hefai/., ?/be try to perform, 
I shall be satisfied." The cohjuuclion, however, con- 
nects the two members of the iiei>tence with equal force in 
both constructions ; for, as I told you l^fore, this is an 
inverted order of the sense, and, by reac^ng the sentence 
in its proper order, you will percei\c, that the conjunction 
performs its proper office. 

Caroline, 1 suppose, then, frorn the examples which 
you have given, that the subjunctive mood cannot be pro- 
perly used, except in a compound sentence; for a simple 
sentence contains but o/ze 72o;/z/?2G/i7't' and one verb; and 
ihe conjunctions, if though^ U7ile.ssy Sec. are such as con- 
nect only members of compound sentences. 

Tutor. That is right, Caroline. But we shall see this 
more clearly, perhaps, if we make an experiment. If I 
say, then, " If George study"—-" If he spend his time 
idly" — you perceive the sense is not complete; and, to 
make it so, I must add another member of a sentence. 
Let u'i fill it ..up. " If George study, he tvili ivi^irove;^^ 
"' If he spend his time idly, he will not improve^.'' Now 
you see the sense is complete. But these sentences are 
inverted. Let us read them in the order of the sense. 
*■' George will improve, if he study;" '• lie will not im- 
prove, if he spend his time idly." 

But now, to make the distinction, more ])lajn, if possible, 
observe the indicative mood, or form: "•George studies;^' 
" He sfiends his time idly." These are siPii pie sentences, 
but the sense is complete. 

George. Are the conjunctions which express condition, 
doubt, motive, &c. always written before the verb in the 
subjunctive ? % 

Tutor. No : sometimes they are understood, and the 

K 



no ETYMOLOGY 

form of the expression will show you when they at-e uii- 
derstood: as, " Had he come sooner, I should have seen 
him ;" " Were^he rich, he would be liberal ;" that is, 
" If he had come,** &c.; « If he were rich,*' 8cc. 

Caroline. I believe we comprehend the character and 
use of the subjunctive mood. 

Tutor. I believe you comprehend what I have said ; 
but I have a few words more to say on this subject. There 
are two forms of the Present Tense of the subjunctive 
mood, which I denominate the Firsi Porm^am] the Second 
Form of the subjunctive present : the Second Form is that 
which I have explained. The First Form is that in which 
the verb retains the personal termination in the second 
and third persons singular, as it does in the indicative pre- 
sent : as, ' 

Subjunctive Moou. 

H Present Tense. 

FIRST }0R*. SECOND FORM 

If I Study. If I study. 

If thou studiest. If thou study. 

If he studies. If he study. 

Plural. Plural. 

If we study. If we study. 

If ye or you study. If ye or you study. 

If they study. If they study. 

George. The distinction of these two forms of the pre- 
sent tense of the subjunctive, is very easily remembered, 
because ihefrst is like that of the indicative present, ex- 
cept the conjunction must be prefixed; and \\\e second you 
explained before. 

Caroline, But I perceive one difficulty; which is, that 
I do not know when I must use the first form, or when I 
must use the second; and if I know how to conjugate and 
parse verbs in these two forms of the subjunctive present, 
but do not know when to use the first form, or when the 
second, I do not know enough of grammar, with respect to 
this mood, to make it of much benefit to me ; for grammar 
teaches us to speak and write correctly. 

Tutor. Very well, Caroline, that is true. I will try to 
inform you on this point, so that you may be able to use 
the subjunctive mood correctly. 

The Second Form of the subjunctive present, as I have 
given it to you, always has 2i future signification; or a re- 
ference to future time, as you will perceive by reflecting 
©n. the examples which I have used to illustrate it. 



AND SYNTAX. ill 

£heJi}'st/or?n has no reference to future time. Both 
are preceded by a conjunction, expressed or understood, 
or by sonie words which express a condition, doubt, mo- 
tive, &CC. so that, when you take the whole compound sen- 
tence together, in which the subjunctive present is used, 
and find that the expression has a reference to future time^ 
you must use the second form; otherwise, the^rsr. See 
also sec. XX. page 263. 

The truth is, that the second form, having a reference 
to future time, always has some auxiliary verb understood 
before it ; such as may^ can-, or should. Now you will 
perceive, that, if we conjugate the verb, and use one of 
these auxiliaries, the fir inci/ialvevh cannot vary, in the 
second and third persons singular : as, 

If I should go. If I can come. 

If thou shouldst go. If thou canst come. 

If he should go, Sec. if he can come, ^c. 

And when I say, " George will improve, if he study;" 
the phrase means, that George will improve, if he should 
study. 

George, I perceive, that that is the meaning ; and that 
the verb must be study y and not studies; for we cannot say, 
" If he should studies;^* and the principal verb must be 
written in the same manner, when the auxiliary is under- 
stood, as it ii>, when expressed. The reason, therefore, 
why the verb, in the second form, does not vary, is quite 
plain. I think I now know how to use the two forms of 
the subjunctive present. 

Caroline. I think I understand too, very clearly, how 
to use them. For example, if I say, " George will recite 
his lesson better than I, if he studies v/hile I am talking." 
The phrase does not mean, " If he should study," but, 
" If he noli) studies, or if he is now studying ;" therefore, 
I properly use Xho. first form. 

Tutor. That is right ; and I think now, that you both 
understand the subjunctive mood ; and when you parse a 
verb in the present tense of this mood, always tell whether 
it is in ihc first or second form. 

I will now question you concerning the subject of this 
Conversation. 

QUESTIONS. 

When is a verb in the subjunctive mood ? 

Why is this mood called subjunctive ? 

Is this mood ever used in simple sentences * 



■v^^ 



112 ETYMOLOGY 

What is the difference between xhc _/irst and the a 
form of the subjunctive present ? 

How many tenses has tliis mood? 

In what tenses of the subjunclive mood is the vcrb^con- 
jugated, as it is in the correspondent lenses of the indicative? 

In which is it conjugated differently ? 

In what instances must iherj^rst form of the subjunctive 
present be used ? 

In what must the second be used r 

Can you conjugate the verb speak, through all the tenscs^ 
of the subjunctive mood, giving both forms of the present 
tense ? 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

I shall walk in the fields to-morrow, unless it rain. If 
George studies well, he does his duly in that respect. If 
that man thinks as he speaks, he will hereafter find him- 
self in error. My estate has considerably increased durr 
ing this year, unless my accountant deceives me. If he 
acquire riches, and make not a good use of them, they 
will corrupt his mind. 

It is here necessary to give you another rule, to assist 
you in the proper use of the verbs, in the construction of 
compound sentences. 

RULE XIX. 

T/ieverbS) connected by conjunctions, must be in the same 
mood and tense^ and, ivhen in the subjunctive mood, they 
irMst be in the same form. 

You remember, doubtless, the 14th rule, which says, 
" Nouns and pronouns, connected by conjunctions, must 
be in the same cases.'* 

This rule, and the 19th, which I have just given you, 
are of great importance, in the construction of compound 
sentences; and you must, therefore, pay particular atten- 
tion to them. 



CONVERSATION XYII. 



OF THE POTENTIAL, INFINITIVE, AND 
LMPERATIVE MOODS. 

Tutor. In this Conversation, I will give you the re- 
maining moods, and their tenses. I shall, first, explain to 
you the potential mood. 




AND SYNTAX. 



II; 



This mood implies possibility, or liberty, will, or obli- 
gation : as, " It may ram; he may go; I can walk j he 
•would ride ; they should study." 

This mood, you may remember, has four tenses, viz. 
the present, the imperfect, the perfect, and the pluper- 
fect. 

I have told you, that those^ tenses which are formed by 
auxiliary verbs, are called com/iound tenses. The present 
and imperfect tenses, of the indicative and subjunctive 
moods, you know,, are simple tenses, and the others are 
compound; but all the tenses of the potential mood are 
compound. 

The auxiliaries which form the tenses of the potential 
mood, are, 7nayij cauy must, willy shall, might, could, would 
and should. 

I will, first, show you how these auxiliaries are conju- 
gated, and will^ then, give you the potential mood. 



PRESENT TENSE 

Singular. 
I may. 

Thou mayst. 
He may. 

Plural. 
We may. 
Ye or you may 
They may. 

Singular. 
I can 

Thou canst. 
He can. 



May. 



Cak< 



iMPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular, 
I might. 
Thou mightst 
He might. 

Plural. 
We might. 
Ye or you might. 
They might. 

Singular. 
I could. 
Thou couldst. 
He .could. 



Plural. 
We can. 
Ye or you can. 
They can. 

Singular. 
I must. 
Thou must. 
He must. 



Must. 



Plural. 
We could. 
Ye or you could. 
They could. 

Singular. 
I must. 
Thou must. 
He must, 



K 2 



;i4 



ETYMOLOGY 



Plural. 
We must. 
Ye oryoii must 
They must. 



FluraL 
We must. 
Ye or you must 
They must. 



You will here observe that must has no variation^ on 
account of person, ^lumber, or, tense. 



Singular. 
I will. 
Thou wilt. 
He will. 



Will. 



Singular. 
I would. 
Thou wouldst 
He would. 



Plural. 
We will. 
Ye or you will 
They will. 



Singular . 
I shall. 
Thou shalt. 
He shall. 



Shall. 



Plural. 
We would. 
Yg or you would ^ 
They would. 



Singular. 
I should. 
Thou shouldst. 
He should. 



Plural. 
We shall. 
Ye or you shall. 
They shall. 



Plural. 
We should. 
Ye or you should = 
^^They should. 



Georg6\ I observe that you have given no perfect or 
passive participle to these verbs. 

Tutor, These verbs have no participles : and they are, 
therefore, called defective verbs. 

Caroline. You say, that all these are used in forming 
the tenses of the potential mood ; but I recollect, that 
%hall and 'will were used as auxiliaries, in forming the first 
and second future tenses of the indicative and subjunctive 
moods. 

Tutor. They were ; and, when they denote futurity^ 
as in these expressions: " I shall see you to-morrow; or 
I will meet you ;" meaning at some future time ; they put 
the verbs in the indicative first future. So, in these 
phrases, " I shall have seen him ; or if I shall have seen 



AND SYNTAX. 115 

iiim," &c. lije verbs are in the indicative and subjunctive, 
second future. 

But, when these auxiliaries denote inclination or willing- 
ness, resoiution, or promise, they put the verba in the po- 
tential present : as, " Will yo\x give iiie that book, 
George ?" that is, " Are you willijig to jnve me that book." 
Aijain, " Some persons wz/^ never assist the poor;" that 
is, some persons are unxvilling to assist the poor. 

Once more, " Shall I hear you recite now ?" " You 
shall recite now." " He shall obey me at all times," Sec. 
But will and shall are not so often used in this sense, as 
they are in that which denotes futurity. * 

J^^aij^ can, musi, and their imlicrfcct tenses^ ai>d the fm- 
perfect tenses of will and shall, viz. vjould and shouldyZVQ 
the auxiliaries, which are almost always used to form the 
potential mood. 

I will now give you the irregular verb Beat, in the 
four tenses of the potential mood. 

Potential Mood. 

To form the present tense, prefix the present tense of 
any of the auxiliaries, which I have just explained, to the 

verb: 

Present TensEo 

Singular. 
I may or can, Sec. beat, 
Thou mayst or canst, Sec. beat. 
He may or can. Sec. beat. 

Plural. 
We may or can, Sec. beat. 
Ye or you may or can. Sec. beat, 
They may or can> Sec. beat. 

To form the imperfect tense, prefix the imperfect of any 
of these auxiliaries to the verb : as. 

Imperfect tense. 

Singular. 
I might, could, would, or should. Sec. beat. 
Thou mightst. Sec. beat, 
He might, Sec. beat 



r''lr-'.-* 



116 ETYMOLOGY 

Plural. 
We might, 8cc. beat, 
Ye or you might, &c. beat, 
They might, ^c. beat. 

To form the; perfect tense, combine ihe present tense jDt 
any of these auxiliaries with have, and prefix them both to 
the perfect participle : as. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. 
I may or can, &c. have beaten. 
Thou mayst, 8cc. have beaten, 
He may, &cc. have beaten. 

Plural. 
We may. Sec. have beaten, 
Ye or you may, &c. have beaten, 
They may, &c. have beaten. 

To form the pluperfect tense, combine the imperfect of 
any of these auxiliaries v;ith have^ and prefix them both 
to th€ perfect participle: as, 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. 
I might or could, Sec. have beaten, 
Thou mightst, Sec. have beaten, 
He might, Sec. have beaten. 

Plural. 
We might, Sec. have beaten. 
Ye or yau might, Sec. have beaten, 
They might, Sec. have beaten. 

1 have now presented to you the potential mood with its 
four tenses, and have explained the manner in which they 
are formed. 

George. I now see that all t^e tenses of this mood are 
compound tenses, because they are all formed by auxilia- 
ries. I think, with a little reflection, that it will not be 
difficult to reir^ember the particular form of each. 

Caroline. If you please, I will endeavo'ur to tell how 
each is formed. 

Tutor. Let me hear. 



AND SYNTAX. 117 

Caroline. The potential present is formed by prefixing 
}nay:^can. must., ivill, or shali^ lo any verb ; the imperfect 
is formed t)y prefixing the imperfect tcilse of these, viz. 
might., could., rriust^ would., or should^ to any verb ; the 
fieifect is formed by prefixing 7nay have, can have^^ or must 
have. Sec. to Xhe perfect participle oX ■Siuy vtrh '. and the 
pluperfect is formed by prefixing 7/i/§-A^ have, could have^ 
would have. Sec. iolh^ perfect participle, of any verb. 

Tutor. You have given them correctly, Caroline ; and 
to aid you in arranging them distinctly in your mind, I will 
merely remark, that the auxiliaries, with the excep- 
tions which I made in the first part of this conversation^ 
respecting will sind shall, may be considered as sig7is of the 
potential mood. 

When you reflect, then, that these signs, in the present 
tense, placed before the indicative present, give you the 
jiotential present ; and, that these signs, in the imperfect^ 
placed before the indicative present also, give you the^^o- 
tential imperfect ; and that have, used with the present 
tense of these signs, and placed before the perfect parti- 
ciple, will give you the potential perfect ; and that have, 
combined with the imperfect tense of them, and placed be- 
fore the perfect participle, will give you the potential /z/w- 
perfect; you cannot find much difficulty in rendering the 
tenses of this mood exceedingly familiar. 

George. You have said so much about them, that I be- 
lieve we shall never forget them. We can easily remem- 
ber this ; that the present and imperfect are formed on 
ihc indicative present, and the perfect and pluperfect on 
Xho. perfect participle. But you have not yet told us why 
this mood is called Potential. 

Tutor. 'X\\t wovdi potential, r\\Q,3.Y\'6 potverfu I, or exist- 
ing in possibility. /When used as a term in grammar, it 
denotes the possibility of doing an action. Aithough this 
mood does not alwaijs represent the power or possibility 
of doing an action, yet it frequently do q,<?>, and we, there- 
fore, call this form of the verb the Potential Mood. 

I will here remark to you, that, as the indicative mood 
is converted into the subjunctive, by the expression of a 
condition, motive, wish, supposition. Sec. being superadd- 
ed to it; so the potential mood may, in like manner, be 
turneid into the subjunctive; as will be seen by the fol- 
lowing examples : " If I could deceive him, I should ab- 
hor it ;" " Though he should increase in wealth, he would 



118 ETYMOLOGY 

not be charitable ;** " Even in prosperity he would gain 
no esteem, unles he should conduct himself better." , , 

When the verb is changed from the potential into the 
subjunctive mood, the tense is not changed. For exam- 
ple : " I may go," is potential present; " J/ I may go," 
is subjunctive present; and, "He would go," potential 
imperfect; and, " //" he would go," subjunctive imper- 
fect, &c. 

'Caroline, Now I should like to hear some explanation 
of the infinitive mood. 

Tutor, The Infinitive Mood is that form of the verb 
which simply expresses the action, without a nominative 
case: as, to ivaik, to eatj to sfieak, &c. Every verb must 
have a nominative case, if it is not in the infinitive mood; 
but in this mood, you may easily perceive that it cannot 
have a nominative ; for this form of the verb, as I have 
shown you, is, to ivalk, to go, &c. and we cannot say, "I 
(0 5*0, I to walk, he to run,'* ^c, A verb in any mood, 
except th« infinitive, is called a j^w2Y<? verb ; because it is 
Jinite, or limited, in respect to its number and person; 
for a verb, when it has a nominative, must agree with it in 
number and person. Thus, when I say, " I run," run, 
you know, is oixh^ first person singular to agree with /; 
and, when I say, " They run," run is of the third person 
plural, to agree with they. It is the nominative, then, you 
perceive, that gives number and person to the verb. 
When I say, "To run," run has no nominative, and of 
course it has neither number nor person, and is, therefore, 
not 2i finite verb, but a verb in the infinitive form, or infini- 
tive mood. 

When, in a former Conversation, I explained to you 
simple and compound sentences, I told you, that a simple 
sentence has but one nominative and one verb. You did 
not, then, know the difference between a finite verb, and a 
verb in the infinitive mood; or I should have told you, 
that a simple sentence is one, which contains but one noiniiia- 
tive and one -eitiiTY- verb. It may contain other verbs in 
the infinitve mood, and still it will be a simple sentence. 

Caroline. I think you have said, that this mood has but 
^wo tenses. 

Tutor. Yes; the /iresentand/ierfect. The present tense 
is formed by prefixing to, which is called the sig-n of 
the infinitive mood, before any verb : as, " To go, to walk, 
to eat," Sec, The perfect is formed by prefixing to havf 



AND SYNTAX. 119 

before the perfect participle of any very : as, " To have 
gone, to ha-ve walked, to have eaten^** 8cc. 

But, when a verb is in the infinitive mood, and is placed 
after make, need, see, bid, dare, /eel, hear, let, in any of their 
moods or tenses, or after their participles, the to must be 
omitted : as, " I make him study; I hear her sing-j I see 
him run; I will let him go; I dare not speak f* Sec. In 
these examples, you perceive, that it would be inelegant 
to express the to, and say, " I heard her to sm^,'* Sec. 

George^ All this is veryfplain, and easily understood; 
but how must we parse a verb in the infinitive mood ? for 
we cannot apply the first rule, as we do, when we parse verbs 
in other moods, because a verb in this mood has no nomi- 
native case. 

Tutor. You will tell whether it is regular or irregular; 
transitive or intransitive; as you do of verbs in other 
moods ; then the mood and tense, and give this 

RULE XX. 

The infinitive mood may be governed by a verb, noun, ad- 
jective, or fiarticifile. 

Government, is the influence which one word has over 
another in directing its case or mood. A verb in the in- 
finitive mood, has no nominative. When a verb, noun, ad- 
jective, or participle, then, prevents the following verb 
from having a nominative, it prevents it from being z. finite 
verb, and, consequently, causes it to be in the infinitive 
mood. 

Caroline. Will you illustrate this rule by a few exam- 
ples ? 

Tutor. I will. When I say, "She sings;" you know 
that she is the nominative to the verb sings. But now I 
write, '^ I ivill let,''* before that phrase, and you will per- 
ceive, that the pronoun she, can no longer remain as the 
nominative to sings, but must be changed into her, in the 
objective case, because let is a transitive \QYh,^Xi{ii governs 
that case: and the s, which is the personal termination of 
the third person singular, of the indicative mood, must be 
taken off; then the phrase will stand thus : " I will let 
her sing ;'* and sing is now in the infinitive mood, and go- 
verned by the verb will let. 

George. I see very clearly, that will let, governs sing ; 
or causes sing to be in the infinitive mood ; for we cannot 
say, "I will let she sings." 

Tutor. This mood is generally governed by the precc- 



iM. 




ETYMOLOGY 

ding verb ; but, sometimes, by a noun, adjective, ar a par- 
ticiple; and, when these govern it, they, in some way or 
other, prevent the verb from having a nominative. Thus,'-- 
if I say, '* I go," " they work;" go and work are finit^^ 
verbs; but insert the verl^s intend 2ind ex/iect j " I intend' 
to ^0," "they expect to ivorkr now, intend zltA ex fiect^ 
take /and r/^ey tbi their own nominatives, and put .the 
otherverbs inio the.jnfirdtivo laood. - 

So, when I say, "' Mndeax) oaring to persuade them," Sec. 
"He is eagei' to leaun"-— " They have a desire to im-J 
prove;" you see, that a nominative could not be inserted^ 
after the participle endia-vouring, the adjective eager, or^^ 
the noun Qfe-^ire ; but, that they govern the verbs that fol- 
low them, in the iafinitive mood. , ^ 

I will just remark to yoy, that the verbs in the infinitive 
mood, thut follow make, tuedy see,_bid, dare,.fcel, hear, let, 
and their participles, are always governed by them.. 

And I Will also observe, that there are a few verbs, be- 
sides these, which sometimes require the infinitive, tjiat fol- 
lows thein, to be used without the sign to. 

Caroline. I hope you have now finished, your remarks 
on the infinitive mood ; for I wish to hear something about 
the imperative, which is the last of the moods. 

Tutor. The iMPiiKATiVE Mood may be very soon dis- 
posed of. "^: 

It simply expresses a command to a second person; and 
the person commanded, is its nominative. It is, therefore, 
ahyays of the second person ; and, as we cannot command 
mfiast or future time, it is always of the present tense. — 
The nominative to a verb in this mood, is generally under- 
stood: as, "Go;" that is, "Go thou," or, "Go ye." — 
" Come to me, and recite ;" that is, " Come thou, or come 
ye or you," &c. 

The verb in the imperative mood, then, is always in the 
present tense, and always of the second person, either sin- 
gular or plural. When 077^ person is commanded, it is of 
the singular number, and agrees with thou, expressed or 
understood ; when more than one are commanded, it is of 
the plural munber, and agrees with ye or you, expressed 
or understood. Do is sometimes used as an auxiliary, in 
this mood, as well as in the indicative and subjunctive ; 
as. Do study ;" " Do thou study, or d'o you study ;" " Do 
do the work better," Sec. . " Do let that alone." 

When I gave you the potential mood, I made you ac- 
quainted with soitie of the defective verbs. 



AND SYNTAX. 121 

DEiECTiVE Verbs are those which are used only in 
ome of the moods and tenses, and have no participles. 
The principal of them are these : 

Per/, or Pass, Par-^ 
ticifiles wanting. 



-*rcscni. 


Imperfect. 


May, 


might. 


Can, 


could. 


Will, 


■vvould. 


Shall, 


should c 


Must, 


must. 


Ought, 


ought. 

QUOth. 



All these are used as auxiliaries except ought and quoth; 
jicse two are never used as such. You will observe, that 
ought is the same in both tenses; you will be able to de- 
termine its tense, then, only by the following infinitive ; 
for it is always followed by a verb in the infinitive mood. 
When the following infinitive is in the present tense, ought 
is in the present tense : as, " He ought to go ;" and when 
followed by^the infinitive perfect, ought is in the imper- 
fect : as, " He ought to have gone.^' 

I will ask you a few questions concerriing the subjects 
of this Conversation. 

QUESTIONS. 

What are the auxiliaries which form the potential 
mood? 

How many tenses has this mood ? 

How is the present formed ? 

How isjthe imperfect formed? 

How is^he perfect formed ? 

How is the pluperfect formed ? 

What is the meaning of tense ? 

When is a tense called compound ? 

What is a simple tense? 

Which tenses of the indicative and subjunctive moods 
are simple, and which compound ? 

How many tenses has the infinitive mood ? 

How are they formed? 

How. does this mood differ from the others r 

Why is it called infinitive ? 

Why is the imperative so called ? 



122 ETYMOLOGY 

Of what person must a verb in the imperative mood at- 
ways be ? 

How do you know the tense of the defective verb ought? 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
Study, if you wish to improve.^— Behave well, if thou 
lovest virtue or a good name. — Strive to imitate the vir- 
tues, which thou seest exhibited by the good ; then thou 
wilt give evidence of thy own. — He may improve himself, 
if his industry should increase. — He ought to study more. 
-—He ought to have studied his lesson better. — He can go 
if he chooses. — The boy must not treat his superiors ilL 
— My neighbour may have sold his house, for aught that 
I know. — I told him that he might go yesterday, but he 
would not. — He might have acquired great wealth, if he 
had desired it. — The man should have returned when he 
found his enterprise unsuccessful. — We would not serve 
liim then, but we will hereafter. 



CONVERSATION XVIIL 



OF PASSIVE AND NEUTER VERBS. 

When, in the third Conversation, I explained the verb 
to you, I gave you this definition of it : " A -verb is a word 
that expresses an action of some creature or thing." This 
definition, although it has been sufficient for our purpose, 
thus far, is, nevertheless, very incomplete, as , you will 
soon perceive. 

Verbs are divided into three sorts, the Active^ the Pas- 
sivcy^coidihe JVeutervevhs. 

The definition of a verb, which has been given by the 
most respectable grammarians, is this i " A verb is a word 
which signifies to be, to do, or to suffer: as, I am, I 
rule, 1 am ruled." 

In this example, am is a verb neuter, rule is a verb ac- 
tive, and AM RULED is a verb passive. According to this 
definition, then, a verb neuter signifies to be, or to exist 
merely ; a verb active signifies to no, or to act; and a 
verb passive signifies to suffer. 



AND SYNTAX. 123 

This definition of the active verb you understand; but, 
perhaps, you would hardly know a passive verb, frdm the 
definition here given. 

George, To suffer^ means to undergo pain, or inconve- 
nience. Then, when I say, " I suffer pain; I suffer in- 
convenience ; I endure pain ;" are not suffer and endure^ 
passive verbs ? 

Tutor. No: these govern objective cases, and any 
verb that governs an objective case, is a transitive verb. 
You must reflect on what I said about the transitive and 
intransitive verbs in Conversation XI. You may remem- 
ber, that I called your attention to this subject immedi- 
ately after giving you an explanation^ of the prepositions. 

Caroline. To suffer, sometimes means to allow, or to 
permit. If I say, "I allow, 1 /ier7mt,'* without using an 
objective case ; as, " I alloiu that he is right,** Sec. ; are 
not Mc^e passive verbs ? 

Tutor. No : allow, in the sentence you have just 
given, governs the whole phrase that follows it, as an ob- 
ject. These verbs require an object, without which they 
make no sense. 

Caroline. Then I do not understand the definition that 
is given of the passive verb. 

Tutor. I will endeavour to explain the different kinds 
of verbs, so that you will be able to distinguish the active 
verb from ihefiassive, and the neuter from either, without 
hesitation. 

To nominate, means to name, or to designate, or to 
point out by name; and Nominative, is derived from the 
verb to nominate, and, when used in grammar, means the 
creature or thing named, qm pointed out ; so that all nouns, 
when they are merely named, and not connected in sen- 
tences, are in Xhe nominative case; that is, they denote 
things that exist, named merely : as, Houses, trees, men, 
paper, &c. : these words, used in this manner, simply de- 
note things named ; or in a state, condition, or case, named 
merely, without having any relation with any other things. 
Biit, when we frame a sentence, and make a complete 
sense, which we can never do without a verb, the term no- 
minative, is used to designate, or point out, the subject, 
concerning which the verb makes some affirmation or de- 
claration, or some sufifiosed affirmation or declaration, in 
contradistinction to the object of an action or of a relation. 

Every sentence must have in it, at least one verb and 
one nominative, expressed or understood. We cannot 



-:- ETYMOLOGY 

form a sentence of any kind, which will make a complete 
sense, without a nominative and a verb. This you will 
easily perceive, by a few examples. If I say, "The man 
in the house:" "The horse in the stable ;'V"^he hooks 
on the table;" "The labourers in the field,"l&c. you 
caiinot ascertain what is meant, because there is no affir- 
mation in any of these expressions. But insert the verbs, 
eata^ drinks, sleefis, is^ walks, remains, in the first two ; 
and, are seen, are found, are beheld, will be observed, m 
the next two, and you will see, that a complete sense will 
be formed iji each simple sentence, for you will have a 
7io7ninative and verb in each. 

^ nominati-ve to a -verb, then, is the word which denotes 
the person or thing, concer?iii2g- which the verb' makes an 
affirmation. 

The nominatives to verbs may be divided into three 
classes, viz. those v^hich. produce the action expressed by 
the verb ; those which receive the action expressed by the 
verb; and those which neither produce any action, nor 
receive any, but are the subjects of the verbs, which sim- 
ply express the existence of these subjects, or their state 
of existence. 

The first class, then, are active nominatives; the se- 
cond ixre passive nominatives ; because passive is in direct 
opposition to active; it means unresisting, or receiving an 
action, pr an impression, without resistance ; and the third 
are Tiew^er nominatives ; that is, nominatives which neither 
produce nor receive an action; because these are con- 
nected -with verbs which do not express any action, but 
a mere existence, or state of existence. 

To illustrate what I have said, take the following exam- 
ples : 

First, of ACTIVE nominatives: as, "The box rolls;" 
"The li.orse runs;" "The men labour;'' "The man 
writes a letter." 

Secondly, of passive nominatives : as, " The box is 
held;" "The horse is seen;" "The men are punished;" 
" The man is carried." 

Thirdly, of neuter nominatives: as, "The box lies 
on the table;" "The horse remains in the field;" *■ The 
men stay in the house;" " The man abides in the city." 

Caro^me. I think I now understand the difterence be- 
tween XhQ active, passive, and neuter verbs. When a^erb 
expresses the action of its nominative, it is an active verb; 
when it expresses the action received by its nominative. 



AND SYNTAX. 125 

or done to its nominative, it is a passive verb; and, when 
it expresses no action at all^ but the mere existence of its 
nominative, or its state of existence, it is a verb, neither 
active nor passive, and is, therefore, called neliter. 

George. So the verb takes its character from its nomi- 
native. If the verb has an active nominative, it is an ac- 
tive vevh; if a ^Gssziye nominative, it is a. passive verb; 
and, if a neuter nominative, it is a neuter verb. 

Tutor. That is right. But I will now give you the con- 
jugation of the neuter verb Be, through all its moods and 
tenses. When you understand this verb, so that you know 
it instantly, in all its moods and tenses, you will possess 
additional' means for distinguishing the passive verb ; be- 
cause this neuter verb Be, is frequently used as an auxi- 
liary ^ as well as a principal verb, and no passive verb can be 
formed without it. You will, therefore, find it of great im- 
portance, to make this verb, which is the most irregular 
one in the English language, exceedingly familiar to you. 

The auxiliary and neuter verb To be^ is conjugated as 
follows : 

To Be. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

I am. We are. 

Thou art. Ye or you are. 

He, she, or it is. They are. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

I was, We were. 

Thou wast, Ye or you were. 

He was. They were. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

I have been. We have been. 

Thou hast been, Ye or you have been. 

He hath or has been. They have been. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

I had been, We have been, 

L 3 



U6 



ETYMOLOGY 



Thou hadst been, 
He had been. 



Ye or you had been 
They had been. 



Sijigular. 
I shall or will be, 
Thou shalt or wilt be, 
He shall or will be. 



Firs t Fii ture Tens e. 
Plural. 



We shall or will be. 

Ye or you shall or will be 

They shall or will be. 



Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

I shall have been, We shall have been. 

Thou witt have been, Ye or you will have been. 

He will have been. They will have been. 

This neuter verb Bfi, in the Subjunctive Mood, has tivo 
forms of the Imperfect, as well as of the present tense. 
All oth'Cr verbs, in the subjunctive mood, havd two forms 
of the /iresent tense only. ;;' , 

The tv/o forms of the subjunctive present and imper- 
fect tenses of the neuter verb Be, are these :* 

First Form. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



Singular. 
If I am. 
If thou art, 
If he is. 



Singular. 
If I was. 
If thou wast, 
If he was. 



Singular, 
If I be, 
If thou be, 
If he be. 



Present Tense. 

Plural. 
If we are. 
If ye or you are. 
If they are. 

Imfierfect Tense. 

Plural. 
If we were. 
If ye or you were. 
If they were. 

Second Form. 

Present Tense, 

Plural. 
If we be. 
If ye or you be. 
If they be. 



* To understand the proper use of these, see sec. XX, page 26S, 
and onwards. 






AND SYNTAX. 



127 



Imjierfcct Tense. 
'Si ngu lar. P lura I. 

Itlwere, If we were. 

If thou wertj If ye or you were. 

If he were. If they were. 

The remaining tenses of this mood, are similar to the 
correspond^it tenses of the Indicative Mood, with the 
excepti'on which I have before given you, viz. that ivill 
and ivilt are not used in the second future. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 



Present Tense. 



Singular. 

I may or can be, 

Thou may>t or canst be, 

He mav or can be. 



Plural. 
We may or can be. 
Ye or you may 07* can be. 
They may or can be. 



Singular. 

I might, could, would, or 

should be, 
Thou mightst, couldst, 

wouldst, or shouldst be, 
He might, could, would, 

or should be. 



Imfierfect Tense. 

Plural, 
We might, could, would, 

or should be. 
Ye or you might, could, 

would, or should be, 
TJiey might, could, would, 

or should be. 



Perfect Tense. 



Singular. 

I may or can have been, 

Thou mayst or canst have 

been. 
He may or can have been. 



Plural. 
We may or can have been,. 
Ye or you may or can have 

been, 
They may or can have 

been. 



Singular. 

I might, could, would, or 

should have been, 
Thftu mightst, couldst, 

wouldst, or shouldst have 

been. 
He mi^ht, could, would, or 

should, have been. 



Pluperfect Tense. 

Plural. 
We might, could, would, 

or should have been, 
Ye or you might, could, 

would, or should have 

been. 
They might, could, would, 

or .should have beeu. 







I2S 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. To be. Perfect, To haive been. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Singular. Plural. 

Be thou or do thou be. Be ye or you, or do ye be 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Being*. Perfect. Been. 

Covifiound Perfect. Having been. 

I remarked to you, before I gave you the conjugation of 
this verb, that no passive verb can ever be formed with- 
out it. I will now tell you how the passive verb is form- 
ed : Add the perfect, or passive fiartici/ile^ of any verb 
that can be made transitive^ when used in an active sense, 
to this neuter verb Be, and you will have a passive verb, 
in the same mood and tense that the neuter verb would be 
in, if the participle were not added. You cannot form a 
passive verb in any other way. 

Caroline. I think I understand it. If I take the word 
forsaken^ which is the perfect or passive participle of the . 
active verb to forsake; for this verb can be made transi- 
tive: as, *' I forsake him;^^ "He forsakes ?«e," &c. atid 
place it after thie neuter verb be: as, " I am forsaken ; 
thou art forsaken ; he is forsaken ; I was forsaken, Sec. ; 
I have been forsaken, See. ; I had been forsaken, &c. ; I 
shall be forsaken, £cc.; I shall have been forsaken," Sec; 
I shall have a passive verb, from the active verb to forsake, 
in all the six tenses of the indicative mood. And I per- 
ceive, that the pronoun /, when connected with a passive 
verb, is not an activeyhwi Sl fiassive nominative. 

Tutor. I believe, Caroline, that you understand how to 
form the passive verbs. 

George. But there are many active verbs that are in- 
transitive; such as ^0, y?t/, arrive, Sec. Suppose that I 
should put the perfect participle of an active intransitive 
verb after the neuter verb be, and say, " He is gorife;'* 
"He is arrived;" " The bird is flown," Sec; what kind 
©f a verb shall I have then ? 

Tutor. A neuter verb, in a fiassive form. 

Caroline. Is this neuter verb be, ever used as an auxi- 
liary connected with the present participle ? 



AND.. SYNTAX. u: 

Tutor, Yes, very often. What is the rule -which you 
give, when you parse the present participle? 

Caroline, The active participle ending in ing, xvhe'a not 
connected ivith auerb^ refers to some noun^ or pronoun^ de- 
notiyig the actor. 

Tutor. That is right; but when it is added to the neu- 
ter verb 6e, be becomes an auxiliary,, and marks the mood 
and tense of the verb, and the participle becomes the 
firincipal part of the verb, just as the passive participle 
does when you form 2i passive verb. 

George. And what sort of a verb have we, when tlie 
'iresent participle is added to the neuter verb be? 

Tutor. '" Either an active transitive or intransitive verb, 
or a verb neuter. If the participle is derived from a 
transitive verb, you have an active transitive verb ; if the 
participle is derived from an intransitive verb, then you 
have an intransitive verb ; but, if it is derived from a verb 
neuter, you have a neuter verb : as, " I am writing a let- 
ter;" here you see that a7ti wrzYm^-, is a transitive verb 
from the verb to write^ and governs letter in the objective 
case; ''I am running;" here you seethe verb is active^ 
hut intransitive^ from the verb to run; and, '^ I am sit- 
ting; I am standing; I am lying on the bed;" you now 
perceive that the verbs are neuter, from the neuter verbs 
to sit^ to standi to lie. And I will remark to you, that this 
neuter verb be, is never used as an aiixiliary, except luith 
he present, of passive participles of other verbs, 

I will now give you the conjugation of the regular verb 
■0 love, in the passive form. 

A passive verb is conjugated by adding the perfect par- 
ticiple to the auxiliary to be, through all its changes of 
number, person, mood, and tense, in the following man- 
ner : 

To Be Loved. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
'"iingular. Plural. 

I am loved. We are loved. 

Thou art loved. Ye or you are loved, 

He is loved. They are loved. 

Imperfect Tense, 
lingular. Plural. 

T was loved, We were loved. 



130 ETYMOLOGY 

Thou wast loved, Ye or you were loved, 

He was loved. They were loved. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singula?\ Plural. 

I have been loved, We have been loved, 

Thou hast been loved, Ye or you have been loved. 

He hath or has been loved. They have been loved. 

Pliijierfect Tense. 
lingular. Plural. 

I had been loved, We had been loVed, 

Thou hadsi been loved, Ye or you had been loved, 

He had been loved. They had been loved. 

First Future Tense. 
Sinsriilar. Plural. „f. 

I shall or will be loved, We shall or will be loved, | 

Thou shalt or | wilt be ,Ye or you shall or will be 

loved, loved. 

He shall or will b^ loved. They shall or will be loved. 

Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

I shall have been loved, We shall have been lored, 

Thou wilt have been lo- Ye or you will have beeii 

ved, loved, 

He will have been loved. They will have been loved. 

The passive verb, necessarily, has the same two formt. 
©f the subjunctive present and innperfect tenses, that the 
neuter verb Be has. 

First Form. 

SUBJUNCTIY^E MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

Ifl am loved, If we are loved. 

If thou art loved, If ye or you are loved. 

If he is loved. If they are loved. 



AND SYNTAX. 



1^1 



Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

If I was loved, If we were loved. 

If thou wast loved, If ye or you were loved 

If he was loved. "If they were loved. 



Singular. 
If I be loved, 
If thou be loved, 
If he be loved. 



Second Form. 

Present Tense. 

Plural. 
If we be loved, 
If ye or you be loved 
If they be loved. 



Imperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

If I were loved, If we were loved. 

If thou wert loved, If ye or you were loved. 

If he were loved. If they were loved. 

The remaining tenses of this mood are similar to the 
"correspondent tenses of the Indicative Mood, except nvil- 
and ivilt are not used in the second future. 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 



Present Tense. 



Singular. 

I may or can be loved, 

Thou mayst or canst be 

loved, 
He may or can be loved. 

I?n/icrfecl 
Singular. 
I might, could, would, or 

should be loved, 
Thou mightst, couldst, 

wouldst, or shouldst be 

loved, 
He might, could, would, 

or should be loved. 



Plural. 
We may or can be loved. 
Ye or you may or can be 

loved. i 

They may or can be loved. 

Tense. 

Plural. 
We might, could, would, 

or should be loved. 
Ye 07' you might, could, 

would, or should be 

loved. 
They might, could, would^ 

or should be loved. 



Singular. 
I may or 
loved, 



can 



Perfect Tense. 

Plural. 
have been W^e may or can have been 
loved. 



132 



KTYMOLOGY 



Thou mayst or canst have 

been loved, 
He may or can have been 

loved. 



Ye or you may or can 

have been loved. 
They may or c^n haVe 

been loved. 



Pluperfect- Tense . 



iiingular. 

I .might, could, would, or 

should have been loved. 
Thou mightst, couldst, 

wouldst, 07' shouldst have 

been loved, 
He might, could, would, 

or should have been 

loved. 



Plural. 
We might, could, would, 

or should have been 

loved. 
Ye or you might, could, 

would, or should have 

been loved. 
They might, could, would, 

or should have been loved. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 



Present Tense. 
To be loved. 



Perfect. 
To have been loved. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 



Singular. 

Be thou loved, or do thou 
be loved. 



Plural, 
Be ye or you loved, or do 
ye be loved. 



PARTICIPLES. 



Presejit. 

Perfect or Passive. 

Compound Perfect. 



Being loved. 

Loved. 

-Having been loved, 



Now you can take the passive participles of other 
verbs, and conjugate them in the same manner. Take 
beaten., carried.^ seen., forgotten^ and many others, and use 
them instead of /oi'^c/', as an exercise to make you familiar 
with the conjugation of a passive verb. 

You will now.observe, that, when an auxiliary is joined 
to the participle of the principal verb, the auxiliary goes 
through all the variations of person and number, and the 
participle itself continues invariably the same. When 
there are two or more auxiliaries joined to the participle, 
the first of them only is varied according to person and 
number. The auxiliary must admits of no variation. 



AND SYNTAX. 355 

The other defective verbs vary in the second person sin- 
gular. In every instance, when an auxiliary verb is used, 
it is t/iai only which varies to agree with its nominative ; 
and the personal variations of any verb, except be, whether 
principal or auxiliary, extend only to the second and third 
person singular of the present tense, and to the second 
person singular of the imperfect tense. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
The man beats the boy.— The boy is beaten by the 
man. — The horses draw the coach. — The coach is drawn 
by the horses. — The master teaches the children.— The 
children are taught b'y the master. — The carpenter built 
the houses. — The houses were built by the carpenter.—- 
Commerce introduces luxury. — Luxury is introduced by 
commerce. — That farmer cultivates his farm well. — The 
farm is well cultivated. — The goods were purchased. — 
The house was sold. — The ship has been lost. — The mo- 
ney will be found. — The boy will have completed his task 
before you see him. — The task will have been completed 
an hour, in ten minutes more. — The lady remains at home. 
— The book lies on the table. — The desk stands in lh6 
corner of the room. — The coach and horses are in the 
stable. — I am here. — Xhou art there. — He is in town. — - 
We are honest. — You are proud. — They are sober. — I 
was sleepy.— Thou wast angry with him. — He was not 
eager to learn. — They were guilty. — We were reasonable 
in our demands. — Ye were found guilty. — I have been 
on the water frequently. — I have been seen on the water 
frequently. — I have seen the man. — I have been seen by 
the man.— The boy had seen it.— The boy had been seen. 
— The letter will be here.— The letter will be brought hi- 
ther. — Be honest. — Be not idle. — Be instructed. — Be 
carried. — You like to be carried. — You may be carried.— 
You ought to be carried. — He ought to have been carried. 
— He should have been carried, had I known his situation. 
— The house can be enlarged. — He might be convinced. — 
He might have been convinced. — Being ridiculed and 
despised, he still maintained his principles. — Having been 
ridiculed, he could not endure his chagrin. — Ridiculed, 
despised, insulted, he became discouraged. — If I be beaten 
by him, he will be punished. — If he has been seen, he has 
not been caught. — Whether he is at home or not, I have 
no means of knowing. If I were beaten as badly as he, I 
should complain. — If he was beaten, it is not known. 

M 



i^^ ETYMOLOGY 

CONVERSATION XIX 



OF THE AUXILIARY VERBS, AND OF THE 

TENSES, 

Tutor. You must, by this time, have observed the great 
importance of auxiliary verbs in the English language ^ 
for you have seen, that without them, the verbs would be 
limited in their moods and tenses, to the indicative and 
subjunctive moods, in the present and imperfect tenses ; 
the infinitive mood, present tense j and the imperative 
mood, 

George. I perceive that they are of great importance 
in giving variety, as well as precision, to the language. 
For with these, we form the perfect, pluperfect, and two 
future tenses of the indicative and subjunctive moods ; all 
the tenses of the potential mood j and the perfect of th.e 
infinitive. 

Tutor. Some of these auxiliaries, I have already par- 
ticularly noticed, viz. may^ can, must, will, and shall. 
None of these, except nvill, is ever used as a principal 
verb, but as an auxiliary to some fir incifial, either express- 
ed or understood. Will is sometimes a principal verb, as 
1 will by-and-by show you. There are four verbs which 
are sometimes used as auxiliaries, and sometimes as princi- 
pals. These are, do, be, have, and will. 

Do is used as an auxiliary, in the imperative mood, and 
in the present and imperfect tenses of the indicative and 
subjunctive. 

Be is used as an auxiliary, in all the moods and tenses 
to form the passive Verbs, and neuter verbs in a passive 
form, by being connected with the passive participles of 
other verbs; and in forming active and neuter verbs, by 
being connected with the present participles of other 
verbs; and, in both instances, serves to mark the mood 
and the tense of the verb. 

Have is used in forming the perfect, pluperfect, and se- 
cond future tenses of the indicative and subjunctive moods; 
the perfect and pluperfect of the potential mood; and the 
perfect of the infinitive mood. 



AND SYNTAX. 13^ 

Will is used in forming the first and second future tenses 
©f the indicative and subjunctive moods ; dLud, sometimes, 
in forming the present tense of the potential mood. 
'Caroline. And, when these are used dis firinci/ial \erhs, 
their moods and tenses are formed just as those of other 
verbs are, are they not ? 

Tutor. They are. And you perceive, that have may 
be an auxiliary to its own participle: as, in the indicative 
and subjunctive perfect and pluperfect, "I have had; J 
had had," and, "Ifl have had; if I had had," &c. And in 
the infinitive perfect: as, " To have had." And do may- 
be used as an auxiliary to itself: as, " I do do it," in the 
present; and, "I did do it," in the imperfect ; and ivill, 
as, " He will will it ; he will have willed it," &c. 

George. I believe we understand the use of the auxi^ 
liary verbs now very well, and know which are used as 
auxiliaries always, and which are used someti?nes as *mcA, 
and sG?netimes 2lS principals. 

Tutor. I think you do. But before I dismiss this safe- 
ject, I will give you some additional 

REMARKS ON DO, BE, HAVE, AND WILL. 

The verbs have, be, will, and do, when they are uncon" 
nected with a principal verb, expressed or understood, are 
not auxiliaries, but principal verbs : as, *' We Aat;e enough;" 
^' I am grateful;" "He wills it to be so;" " They rfo as 
they please/' In this view,^ they also have their auxilia- 
ries : as, "I shall have enough;" ^^Iwill be grateful," 
&c. 

The peculiar force of the several auxiliaries will appear 
from the following account of them. 

Do, and did, mark the action itself, or the time of it, with 
greater energy and positiveness: as, ''I do speak truth;" 
" I did respect him :" *' Here am I, for thou didst call me." 
They are of great use in negative sentences : as, " I do not 
ieEiv;'*^'l did not write." They are almost universally 
employed in asking questions: as, '^ Does he learn?" 
^^ Did he not write?" They sometimes also supply the 
place of another verb, and make the repetition of it, in the 
same or a subsequent sentence unnecessary, as, " You at- 
tend not to your studies as he does;"" (i. e. as he attends, 
&c.) "I shall come if I can ; but if I do not, please to ex- 
cuse me ;" (i. e. if I come not.) 

Let, not only expresses permission, but entreating, ex- 
horting, commanding: as, "Let vis know the truthj" 



1S6 ETYMOLOGY 

"Let me die the death of the righteous;" "Let not your 
hearts be too much elated with success;'' "Let your in- 
clinations submit to your duty." 

May and might cyn^rtss the possibility or liberty of do- 
ing a thing; can and could^ the power: as, "It may rain ;*' 
"I may write or read ;" " He might have improved more 
than he has;" " He can write much better than he could 
last year." 

Must is sometimes called in for a helper, and denotes ne- 
cessity: as, " We must speak the truth, whenever we do 
speak, and we must not prevaricate." 

Will, in the first person singular and plural, intimates re- 
solution and promising; in the second and third person, 
only foretels : as, " I will reward the good, and will pu- 
jiish the wicked ;" " We will remember benefits, and be 
grateful ;" " Thou wilt, or he will, repent of that folly ;" 
" You or they will have a pleasant walk." 

Shall, on the contrary, in the first person, simply fore- 
tels ; in the second and third persons, promises, commands, 
or threatens : as, " I shall go abroad ;" " We shall dine 
at home;" "Thou shalt, or you shall, inherit the land;" 
" Ye shall do justice and love mercy ;" " They shall ac- 
count for their misconduct." The following passage is 
not translated according to the distinct and proper meaning 
of the words shall and "ivill: " Surely goodness and mercy 
shall follow me all the days of my life ; and I will dwell in 
the house of the Lord for ever." It ought to be, " Will 
follow me," and " I shall dwell."- — The foreigner who, as 
it is said, fell into the Thames, and cried out; "I ivill be 
drowned, nobody shall help me;" made a sad misapplica- 
tion of these auxiliaries. 

These observations respecting the import of the verbs 
wi// and shall, must be understood of explicative sentences ; 
for when the sentence is interrogative, just the reverse, 
for the most part, takes place : thus, " I shall go ; you 'tvill 
go ;" express event only : but, *' will you go ?" imports in- 
tention ; and " shall I go ?" refers to the will of another. 
But, " He shall go," and *' shall he go V both imply will ; 
expressing or referring to a command. 

When the verb is put in the subjunctivemood, the mean- 
ing of these auxiliaries likewise undergoes some alteration; 
as the learner will readily perceive by a few examples: 
" He 5Aa// proceed," " If he shall proceed ;" " You shalt 
consent," "If you sAa// consent." These auxiliaries are 
sometimes interchanged, in the indicative and subjunctive 



AND SYNTAX. 137 

-moods, to convey the same meaning of the auxiliary : as, 
"<• He ivill not return." " If he shall not return;" " He 
shall not return," " If he ivill not return." 

Would primarily denotes inclination of will; and should, 
obligation : but they both vary their import, and are often 
used to express simple events. 

Were is frequently used for ivould <5(?, and had, for would 
have: as, "It were injustice to deny the execution of the 
law to any individual ;" that is, ^^ it luould be injustice." 
*' Many acts which had been blamable in a peaceable go^ 
^•ernraent, were employed to detect conspiracies;" that 
is, "which wow/c? have been blamable." 

Sometimes that form of the auxiliary verbs shall, ivill^ 
Sec. which is generally conditional, is elegantly used to ex- 
press a very slight assertion, with a modest diffidence. 
Thus we say,^ " I should thmk it would.be proper to give 
up the point ;" that is, " I am rather inclined to think." 

Some writers still use shall and ivill, should dLud would, 
as they were formerly used ; that is, in a sense quite con- 
trary to that in which they are generally used at present. 
The following expressions are instances of this incorrect 
practice : " We would have been wanting to ourselves, if 
we had complied with the demand;" " We should ;" " We 
^zyzY/ therefore briefly unfold our reaso as ;" '^ We shall:*' 
^' He imagined, that, by playing one party against the 
other, he would easily obtain the victory over both?" 
" He should easily," Sec. 

In several familiar forms of expression, the word shall 
still retains its original signification, and does not mean, to 
promise, threaten, or engage, in the thii d person, but the 
mere futurition of an event : as, " This is as extraordi- 
nary a thing as one shall bear of" 

You now know, very well, how to form all the tenses, 
in all the different moods ; but to use them with firop.riety, 
is quite another affair, and requires much reflection and 
critical attention. To aid you in understanding this,! will 
igive you the following 

REMARKS ON THE TENSES. 

Tense, being the distinction of time, might seem to ad- 
mit only of the present, past, and future : but to mark it 
more accurately, it is made to consist of six variatiojiSj 

M 3 



138 ETYMOLOGY ^ 

THE PRESENTj THE PEHFJEt;'!* 

THE IMPERFECt, THE PLUPERFECT, aud 

THE FIRST AND SECOND FUTURE TENSES. 

The Present Tense represents an action or events as 
passing at the time in which it is mentioned : as, " I rule ; 
I am ruled; I think; I fear." 

The present tense likewise expresses a character, qua- 
lity, Sec. at present existing: as, "He is an able man ;" 
** She is an amiable woman." It is also used in speaking 
of actions continued, with occasional intermissions, to the 
present time: as, "He frequently rides;" "He walks 
out every morning;" "He goes into the country every 
summer." We sometimes apply this tense even to per- 
sons long since dead : as, " Seneca reasons and moralizes 
well;" " Job speaks feelingly of his afflictions." 

The present tense, preceded by the words, w/^ew, ie- 
fore^ after^ as soon as, &c. is sometimes used to point out 
the relative time of a future action : as, " W/2e?i he ar- 
rives he will hear the news;" "He will hear the news 
before he arrives, or as soxyn as he arrives, or, at farthest, 
soon after he arrivies;" "The more ^ho improves y the 
more amiable she will be." 

In animated historical narrations, this tense is sometimes 
substituted for the imperfect tense; as, *• He enters the 
territory of the peaceable inhabitants : he Jights and con^ 
guersy takes an immense booty, which he divides amongst 
his soldiers, and returns home to enjoy a vain and useless 
triumph." 

Every point of space or duration, how minute soever it 
may be, has some degree of extension. Neither the pre- 
sent, nor any other, instant of time, is wholly unextended. 
Nay, we cannot conceive, as Dr. Beattie justly observes, 
an unextended instant : and that which we call the fire- 
sent, may in fact admit of a very considerable extension. — 
While I write a letter, or read a book, I say, that I am 
reading or writing it, though it should take up an hour, a 
day, a week, or a month ; the whole time being consider- 
ed as present, which is employed in the present action.-— 
So, while I build a house, though that shoiild be the work 
of many months, I speak of it in the present time, and say 
that I am building it. In like manner, in contradistinction 
to the century past, and to that which is to come, we may 
consider the whole space of a hundred years as time pre- 
sent, when we speak of a series of actions, or of a state of 



AND SYNTAX. J 39 

existence, that is co-extended with it ; as in the following 
example : " In this century we are more neglectful of the 
ancients, and we are consequently more ignorant, than they 
t^ere in the last, or, perhaps, than others ivill be in the 
next." Nay, the entire term of man's probationary state 
in this world, when opposed to that eternity which is be- 
fore him, is considered as pi^sent time by those who say, 
''In this state we see darkly as through a glass; but in a 
future life, our faith nvill be lost in vision, and W€ shall know 
even as we are koown.'* 



The Imperfect Tense represents the action or event, 
•either as past and finished, or as remaining unfinished at a 
certain time past: as, "I loved her for her modesty and 
virtue;'* "They were travelling post when he met them." 

The first example, in the preceding paragraph, shows 
that the action was past and finished, though the precise 
time of it was not defined. In this point of view, the tense 
may be said to be imperfect: the time of the action is not 
exactly and perfectly ascertained.- — In the second in- 
stance, the action is represented as past, but not finished; 
and it may therefore with propriety be denominated m- 
Jierfect. 

It is proper to observe, on this occasion, that in such 
"sentences as the following — " He wrote to him yester- 
day;" "They behaved themselves at that period very 
properly ;" the precise time of the action is not denoted, 
by the tense of the verb itself; but by the addition of the 
words yesterday^ and at that period. 



The Perfect Tense not only refers to what is past, but 
also conveys an allusion to the present time : as, " I have 
finished my letter ;" " I have seen the person that was 
recommended to me." 

In the former example, it is signified that the finishing 
of the letter-, though past, was at a period immediately 
preceding the present time. In the latter instance, it is 
uncertain whether the person mentioned was seen by the 
speaker a long or short time before. The meaning is, "I 
have seen him sometime in the course of a period which 
includes, or comes to, the present time." In both in- 
stances, " The finishing of the letter," and ^' The seeing 
of the person," comprehend periods, each of which ex- 
tends to the time present. We have no idea of any cer- 
tain portion of time intervening, between the time of ac^ 



UO ETYMOLOGY 

tion and the time of speaking of it. The sentence, *' I 
have written a letter," implies that " I have, or possess, 
the finished action of writing a letter." Under these 
views of the subject, it appears that, the iQvm perfect may 
he properly applied to this tense; as the action is not only 
finished, but the period of its completion is especially re- 
ferred to, and ascertained. 

When the particular time of any occurrence is speci- 
fied, as prior to the present time, this tense is not used ; 
for it would be improper to say, *' I have seen him yester- 
day ;" or, " I have finished my work last week." In these 
cases the imperfect is necessary: as, " Y^atv him yester- 
day;" "I finished my work last week." But when we 
speak indefinitely of any thing past, as happening or not 
happening in the day, year, or age, in which we mention 
it, the perfect must be employed : as, " I have been there 
this morning ;" " I have travelled much this year ;" " We 
have escafied many dangers through life." In referring, 
however, to such a division of the day as is past before the 
time of our speaking, we use the imperfect: as, " They 
came home early this morning ;^' " He ivas with them at 
three o'clock this afternoon." 

The perfect tense, and the imperfect tense, both denote 
a thing that is past ; but the former denotes it in such a 
manner, that there is still actually remaining some part of 
the time to slide away, wherein we declare the thing has 
been done ; whereas the imperfect denotes the thing or 
action past, in such a manner, that nothing remains of that 
time in which it was done. If we speak of the present cen- 
tury, we say, ** Philosophers Aaiye made great discoveries 
in the present century: but if we speak of the last century, 
we say, " Philosophers made great discoveries in the last 
century." ^ He. has been much afflicted this year;" "I 
have this week read the king's proclamation ;" " I have 
heard great news this morning :" in these instances, ** He 
has been^^ " I have read^*^ and ^^ heard <f*^ denote things that 
are past; but they occurred in this year, in this week, and 
to-day ; and still there remains a part of this year, week, 
and day, whereof I speak. 

In general, the perfect tense may be applied wherever 
the action is connected with the present time, by the ac- 
tual existence, either of the author, or of the work, though 
it may have been performed many centuries ago; but if 
saeitlier the author nor the work remains, it cannot be 



AND SYNTAX. 141 

used. We may say, " Cicero has written orations ;** but 
we cannot say, "Cicero has wri^^eTz poems;" because the 
orations are in being, but the poems are lost. Speaking 
of priests in general, we may say, " They have in all ages 
claimed great powers;" because the general order of the 
priesthood still exists : but if we speak of the Druids, a sa 
particular order of priests, which does not now exist, we 
cannot use this tense. We cannot say, " The Druid 
priests Aat;^ c/azzwtfd^ great powers;" but must say, "The 
Druid priests claimed great powers;" because that order 
is now totally extinct. 

The perfect tense, preceded by the words when, after ^ 

as soon as, &c. is often used to denote the relative time of 

,ra future action : as, " When I have finished my letter, I 

will attend to his request :" " I will attend to the business, 

as soon as I have finished my letter." 



The Pluperfect Tense represents a thing, not only as 
past, but also as prior to some other point of time specified 
in the sentence: as, "I had finished my letter before he 
arrived." 

The term used to designate this tense, may, in some de- 
gree at least, be justified by observing that the time of the 
action or event, is more than, or beyond the time of some 
other action or event to which it refers, and which is in the 
perfect or the imfierfect tense. Thus, in the sentences, " I 
have seen him, but I had written to him before ;" " Though 
ilie had not then agreed to the proposal, he has at length 
.^consented to it ;" " I saiv him after I had written to him ;" 
" He decided indeed very culpably, but he had been vehe- 
mently urged to it ;" the pluperfect extends not only be- 
yond, and precedent to, the time signified in the perfect 
tense, but also that denoted by the imperfect. 



The first Future Tense represents the action as yet 
to come, either with or without respect to the precise time : 
as, "The sun will rise to-morrow;" " I shall see them 
again." 

The Second Future inlimates that the action will be 
fully accomplished, at or before the time of another fu- 
ture action or event: as, "I shall have dined at one 
o'clock;" "The two houses will have finished their busi- 
ness, when the king comes to prorogue them." 

It is to be observed, that in the subjunctive mood, the 
event being spoken of under a condition or supposition, or 



142 ETYMOLOGY 

m the form of a wish, and therefore as doubtful and con- 
tingent, the verb itself in the present, and the auxiliary both 
of the present and past imperfect times, often carry with 
them somewhat of a future tense: as, *' If he cpme to- 
morrow, I may speak of them ;" " If he should, or would 
come to-morrow, I might, could, would, or should speak 
to him." Observe also, that the auxiliaries should and 
would^ in the imperfect times, are used to express the pre- 
sent and future as well as the past : as, " It is my desire, 
that he should, or would, come now, or to-morrow;" as 
well as, " It was my desire, that he should or would come 
yesterday." So that, in this mood, the precise time of 
the verb is very much determined by the nature and drift 
of the sentence. 

In treating of the tenses, there are two things to which 
attention ought principally to be turned, — the relation 
which the several tenses have to one another, in respect 
of time ; and the notice which they give of an action's be- 
ing comfileted or not comfileted. 

The present, past, and future tenses, may bemused either 
definitely or indefinitely^ both with respect to time and ac' 
Hon. When they denote customs or habits, and not indi- 
vidual acts, they are applied indefinitely: as, "Virtue 
firomotes happiness;" " the old Romans ^oT'erw^G? by bene- 
fits more than by fear;" "I shall hereafter ew/z/oi/ my 
time more usefully." In these examples, the words, /zro- 
?no2fe5,^§'ox'^r?i<?(^, and s/ia//ewy7/oz/, are used indefinitely, both 
in regard to action and time; for they are not confined to 
individual actions, nor to any precise points of present, 
past, or future time. When they are applied to signify 
particular actions, and to ascertain the precise points of 
time to which they are confined, they are used definitely; 
as in the following instances: "My brother is writing;'^ 
" He built the house last summer, but did not inhabit it till 
yesterday." "He will write another letter to-morrow." 

The different tenses also represent an action as comfilete 
or perfect^ or as incomplete or imfierfect. In the phrases, 
"lam writing," "I was writing," " I shall be writing," 
imperfect, unfinished actions are signified. But the fol- 
lowing examples, " I wrote," " I have written," " I had 
written," " I shall have written," all denote complete, 
perfect action. 

The distinction of the tenses into definite and indefinite^ 
may be more intelligable to you by the following explana* 
lion and arrangement. 



AND SYNTAX. 143 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Indefinite, This form of the present tense denotes action 
or being, in present time, without limiting it with ex- 
actness to a given point. It expresses also facts which 
exist generally at all times, general truths, attributes 
which are permanent, habits, customary actions, and the 
like, without the reference to a specific time: as, 
" Hope «^rm^5 eternal in the human breast; Virtue 
firomotes happiness; Man is imperfect and dependent ; 
The wicked [flee when no man pursueth ; Plants rise 
from the earth; sometimes he ivorks, but he often 
plays; Birds j??/; Fishes swim." 

Definite. This form expresses the present time with pre- 
cision ; and it usually denotes action or being, which 
corresponds in time with another action ; as, *' He is 
meditating; I am writings while you are waiting.^* 

iMPERrECT TENSE. 

Indefinite. This form of the imperfect tense represents 
action past and finished, and often with the precise time 
undefined : as, " Alexander conquered the Persians ; 
Scipio was as virtuous as brave." 

Definite. This form represents an action as taking place 
and unfinished, in some specified period of past time ; 
as, " I ivas standing at the door, when the procession 
passed." 

PERFECT TENSE. 

Indefinite. This form of the perfect tense represents an 
action completely past, and often at no great distance, 
but not specified: as, "I have accomplished my de- 
sign ;'* " I have read the History of England." 

Definite. This form represents an action as just finished : 
as, "I have been reading a History of the revolution ;" 
" I have been studying hard to-day." 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Indefinite. This form of the pluperfect tense, expresses 
an action which was past at or before some other past 
time specified : as, " He had received the news before 
the messenger arrived." 

Definite. This form denotes an action to be just past, at 
or before another past time specified : as, " I had been 
waiting an hour, when the messenger arrived." 



144 ETYMOLOGY 

FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 

Indefinite. This form of the first future, simply gives no- 
tice of an event to happen hereafter : as, <' Charles 
will go to London;" "I think we shall have a fine 
season." 

Dejinite. This form expresses an action, which is to take 
place, and be unfinished, at a specified future time: as, 
" He nvill be firefiaring for a visit, at the time you ar- 
rive." 

SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 

Indejinite. This form of the second future, denotes an 
action which will be past at a future time specified : as, 
"They ivill have accomjilished their purpose, at the 
time they proposed." 

Definite, This form represents an action, which will be 
just past at a future specified time : as, " The scholars. 
nvill have been studying an hour, when the tutor comes 
to examine them." 

You will observe, that, in this scheme, all the defnite 
tenses are formed by the participle of the present tense, 
and the substantive verb to be. 

There are other modes of expressing future time : as, 
" I am going to write ;" " I am about to write." These 
have been called the IncepMve future, as they note the 
commencement of an action, or an intention to commence 
an action without delay. 

The substantive verb followed by a verb in the infini- 
tive mood, forms another method of indicating future time : 
as, ^'Ferdinand is to command the army." " On the sub- 
ject of style, I am afterwards to discourse.'* " Eneas 
went in search of the seat of an empire, which ivas^ one 
day, to govern the world." The latter expression has 
been called a future past : that is, past as to the narrator; 
hMt future as to the event, at the time specified. 

From the preceding representation of the different 
tenses, it appears, that each of them has its distinct and 
peculiar province; and that though some of them may 
sometimes be used promiscuously, or substituted one for 
another, in cases where great accuracy is not required, 
yet there is a real and essential difference in their mean- 
ing. — It is also evident, that the English language contains 
the six tenses which I have enumerated. Grammarians 
who limit the number to two, «or at most to three, namely, 



AND, SYNTAX. 145 

Vhe present, the imperfect, and the future, do not reflect 
that the English verb is mostly composed of principal and 
auxiliary; and that these several parts constitute one 
verb. Either the English language has no regular future 
tense, or its future is composed of the auxiliary and the 
principal verb. If the latter be admitted, then the auxi- 
liary and principal united, constitute a tense, in one in- 
stance; and, from reason and analogy, may doubtless do 
so, in others, in which minuter divisions of time are ne- 
cessary, or usef<il. What reason can be assigned for not 
considering this case, as other cases, in which a whole is 
regarded as composed of several parts. Or of principal 
and adjuncts? There is nothing heterogeneous in the 
parts : and precedent, analogy, utility, and even neces- 
sity, authorize the union. 

I will now question you concerning the subjects of this 
and the preceding Conversation. 

QUESTIONS. 

When is a verb in the subjunctive mood ? 

How does a verb differ in this mood from one in the 
indicative I Which tenses have two forms ? 

What is the difference between the first form, and the 
second, of the subjunctive mood, present tense ? 

When must the second form be used ? 

When is a verb called regular? 

When must the first form of the subjunctive present be 
used ? 

How are the four tenses of the potential mood formed? 

How does the infinitive mood differ from other moods? 

Why is it called infinitive ? 

W^hy does not the second form of the subjunctive pre- 
sent, vary the verb in the second and third persons singu- 
lar, as the indicative does ? . 

How do you know the imperfect tense of verbs, from 
the perfect or passive participle, when they are both 
spelled alike ? 

When must to he omitted before the infinitive mood ? 

How are all the passive verbs formed ? 

Why are passive verbs so called ? 

What is the meaning of neuter? 

When is a verb neuter ? 

How many classes of nominatives are there ? 

Can you explain them ? 

What verbs are sometimes auxiliaries, and sometimes 
principals ? 

N 



4& ETYMOLOGY 

What auxiliaries are never used as principals : 

In what moods and tenses is do used as an auxiliary ? 

In what tenses is have used as an auxiliary ? and how ? 

What is it always prefixed to, when auxiliary ? 

Can you give a definition of ife7z«tf, and of the six tenses 



CONVERSATION XX 



Tutor. You are now quite familiar wilh nearly all the 
regular constructions of the language; but there are a 
few, which I have not yet presented to you- These I 
will endeavour to explain in this Conversation. A few 
more rules, properly explained, will enable you to parse 
any word, in a regularly constructed . sentence, in tlie 
."English language. The first, which I shall give you this 
morning, is this, 

RULE XXL 

jiny INTRANSITIVE, PASSIVE, or^ NEUTER vcvb^ must havr 
the same case after it as before it^ nvhen both nvords refer /a, 
and sign fy the same thing. 

George. I think that I already understand this rule, 
for no verbs except transitive^ govern the objective case. 
When nouns or pronouns, then, follow intransitive^ fias- 
£ive^ or neuter vGvhs, they cannot be governed by them. 
And, when both words refer to, ajid signify the same thing, 
the latter is in apposition to the former, and must be in 
the same case, according to the sixteenth rule in Con- 
versation XIIL 

Tutor. That is true. 

Caroline. Then what is the use of this twenty-first 
rule, if the sixteenth would enable us to parse all the 
words to which this applies ? 

Tutor. This rule will serve as a further illustration of 
that, and bring under your consideration many erroneous 
constructions, with which you have not yet been made 
sufficiently familiar, and which might escape your notice, 
if they were not more particularly considered. 

I will first direct your attention to the neuter verb to be, 
and give you many examples and illustrations, which you 
•mvM /iars€j and then yon v/i!l remember them. The 



AND SYNTAX. 14? 

liouus and pronouns before and after the verbs, and which 
you will perceive to be in ajifiositioTi^ 1 av ill mark in 
Italics. 

" /am he whom they invited \'* " It may be (or might 
have been) /if, but 2Y cannot be (or could not have been) 
J;" " It is impossible to be they;'' '"''It seems to hav©. 
been /le, who conducted himself so wisely;" ''''It appears 
to be sAe that transacted the business ;" "I understood *2A 
to be /zm;*' " I believe /t: to have been them;''' ''We at 
first took 27 to be her; but were afterwards convinced that 
it was nt>t slie.^'' " He is not the person tvho it seemed he 
was." " He is really the person ivho he appeared to be." 
" She is not now the woman whom they represented her 
-to have been." " Whom do you fancy him to be?" "/ft; 
desired to be their king;'' " They desiied him to be their 
- king.'* 

By these examples, it appears that this substantive verb 
has no government of case, but serves, in all its forms, as 
a conductor to the cases ; so that the two cases which, in 
the construction of the sentence, or member of the sen- 
tence, are the next before and after it, must always be 
alike.' In the sentence, "I understood it to be him," the 
words it arid him are in apposition ; that is, " they refer 
tathe same thing, and are in the same case." — If this rule 
be considered as applying to simple seriterices, or to the 
simple mfembei-s of compound sentences, the diffTCulties 
respecting it, will be still further diminished. 

The following sentences contain deviations from the 
rule, and exhibit the pronoun in a wrong case : " It might 
have been him^ but there is no proof of it;" "Though I 
was blamed, it could not have been 7?2<?;" " I saw one 
whom I took to be she;" ^^ She is the person rjho I under- 
stood it to have been ;" " ?f%o do you think me to be?" 
^yWhom do men say that I am?" "And who?n think ye 
that I am?" 

In the last example, the natural arrangement is, "Ye 
think that I am whom;" where, contrary to the rule, the 
nominative /precedes, and the objective case whom fol- 
lows the verb. The best method of discovering the pro- 
per case of the pronoun, in such phrases as the prece- 
ding, is, to turn them into declarative expressions, and to 
substitute the personal pronoun for the interrogative, or 
relative pronoun ; as the interrogative, or relative pronoun 
inustbe in the same case as the personal pronoun would 
. be irij if substituted for it, Thus, the que'Siion, " Whoni 



148 ETYMOLOGY 

do men say. that I am?" if turned into a declai-ative s<;f^' 
ie«ce, with the personal pronoun^ would be, " Men do 
say that I am he :" consequently the interro,^ative must 
be in the same case as he; that is, the nominative wAo, 
and not iv horn. In the same manner, in the phrase, " Wha 
should I see but my old friend ?" if \ye turn it into a de- 
clarative one, as, "I should see him my, old friend," we 
shall perceive that the interrogative is governed by the 
verb; as him and my J'rknd ave in the objective case, and 
that it ought to be in the same case; that is, wAo7/x, and 
not ivho. 

When the verb to be is understood^ it has the^me case 
before and after it, as when it is ex/iressedi as, " beseems 
the leader of the party;" " /?<? shall continue steward i'' 
*' They appointed me escecutorj" " I supposed A/?n a man 
of learning:" that is, " He seems ifo be the leader of the; 
party," &c. 

Passive verbs which signify naming:^ and othei's of a 
similar nature, have the same case before and after them : 
as, *' //e was called Ceesar;" ^'■She was named Penelofie;** 
^^ Homer is stylfed the prince of poets;" " James was crea- 
ted a duke;'^ " The general was saluted emfieror;^* 
*' The firofessor was appointed tutor to the prince ;" " He 
caused himself to be proclaimed king;'* " The senate 
adjudged him to be declared a traitor." 

From the observations and examples which have been 
])roduc€d, under this rule, it is evident that certain other 
neuter verbs, besides the verb to be, require the same 
case, whether it be tjie nominative or the objective, before 
and after them. The verbs to become, to wander, to go, 
to return, to expire, to appear, to die, to live, to look, to 
grow, to seem, to roam, and several others, are of this 
nature. "After this event, he became fihysician to the 
king;" ^^She wanders an outcast;' "He forced her to 
wander an outcast;" ^^He went out mate^ but he returned 
captain;" "And Sv)ift expires a of y'z^y'/er and a show;" 
" This conduct made him appear an encourager of every 
virtue;" ^^Hortensius died a martyr;!" "The gentle l^id- 
ney lived the shepherd's yVzewd." 

All the examples under this rule, and all others of a 
similar construction, may be explained on the principle, 
that nouns and pronouns are in the same case, when they 
signify the same thing, the one merely describing or elu- 
cidating the other. 

So also in the following: "The iVythor of !P^ being 






AND SYNTAX. i4i) 

formed. ?«« waw, and made me accountable to him/* 
HXhey desired me to C2i\\ them brethren." "He seems 
to have made Am wAa; he was." 

We sometimes meet with such expressions as these: 
" They were asked a question ;" " They, were offered a 
pardon ;" ." He had been left a great estate by his father." 
In these phrases, verbs passive are improperly made to 
govern the objective case. This license is not to be ap?- 
proved. The expressions should be : " A question was 
put to them;" "A pardon was offeted to them;" "His 
father- left him a great estate.'* 

Caroline. I think that we shall find these remarks and 
examples of service to us, and, that we shall not, after this, 
say, "It was him; it was her; it was them; who do 
you think him to be? nor, whom does he think that I 
am?"&c. 

Tutor. I will now give you 

RULE XXII. 

The injinitirue m,ood^ or fiart of a senten<:e^is sometimes the 
subject of a verb\ and is, therefore^ its no initiative. 

Every nominative to a verb which you have hitherto 
parsed, has been either a noun, or a pronoun. But you 
will now find, that a -verb in the infinitive rnood^ may be used 
substantively., and form the nominative to a verb. A few 
examples, which you must parse, will be sufficient to illus- 
trate this rule. I will give you the following : 

To err, is human. To be^ contents his natural desire. 
To fitay is pleasant. Promising naithout due consideration y 
often produces a breach of promise. To mourn without 
measure^ is folly; not. to' mourn at all^ insensibility, 
Reading dooA:*, improved his mind. Letting him escafie^ 
was a fault. 

When a nominative is composed of a veJrb in the infini- 
tive mood only; as, to err^ to be., &c. in parsing it, you 
will say, ^' It is a verb in the infinitive mood, used substan- 
tively, of the third person singular, and forms the nomina- 
tive to the verb,'* whatever it may be. Then repeat Rule 
XXII. r 

When a part of the sentence is the nominative, you wiU 
call it a substantive fihrase., third person siui^ular, &c. 

As a verb in the infinitive mood, or a substantive phrase, 

---composed of part of a sentence, may be the nominative 

to a verb, so each of them may \\t used substantively, as 

the object of % verb ; as, " They love to play;" " Thej 

■is2 



150 ETYMOLOGY 

begin to s€€;^^ " Learn of ihe mole tofilough^ the woriii to 
fveave;" *' I tndcavoured to prevent letting- him escafie^" 
'* I love^o read good books.'' 

In these sentences, him is governed by the participle 
letting.^ and books, by to read. But the two phrases, " let- 
ting him escape,** and " to read good booksi" are governed 
by the preceding verbs, to fir events and lo-ve. So a sub- 
stantive phrase is frequently governed by a preposition : 
as, "A breach of promise is often produced hy promising 
"ivithout due consideration." " The atrocious crime of 
being a young man., 1 shall neither attempt to palliate nor 
deny." 

When you analyze such phrases as these last two, you 
will find that you cannot parse the participle, as referring 
to any subject or actor, according to the sixth ruie, be- 
cause there is no subject or actor known in the sentence j 
but you will merely say it is a present participle from such 
a verb, and composes a part of the substantive phrase. 
Take, for instance, th« phrase, " Promising without due 
consideration,*^' &c. and you will find, that the participle 
has no reference to any actor in the sentence, but ex* 
presses the action generally. 

"The next and last rule that I shall give you for parsing, 
is, 

RULE XXIIL 
When a noun or fironoun has no verb to agree with it, but 
is filaced before a particijile, independently on the rest of the 
sentence., it must be in the nominative case absolute.* 

This rule presents to you another instance, in which a 
yioun or pronoun must be in the nominative case, without 
having a verb to agree with it. 

If you now observe the nominative case independent, ac- 
cording to the seventeenth rule, and the nominative ca^e 
absolute, which we have now under consideration, you will 
see, that the two constructions are very different. The 
nominative case independent, always denotes the person 
spoken to, and is of the second person ; the nominative 
case absolute, may be oi any of the three persons, and is 
always connected with a participle, expressed or under- 
stood: as, " / being badly nvounded, they sent for a sur- 
geon;'* " jfiTe being badly wounded, they sent," &c. In 
these sentences, you perceive that the pronouns / and hcy 
have no verbs to agree with them ; that they are placed 
before the participle, being wounded; d^nd stand indepen 

* See also page 200, note 4-. 






AND SYNTAX. 151 



deritly on the rest of the sentence : they are, therefore, 
in the nominative absolute^ according to the rule. 

But, "/ being badly ivoujided^ was carried home;*' 
" He being badly ivounded, soon died," are constructions 
very different from the others. In these sentences, you 
see that the pronoun /has the verb was carried^ to ag;ree 
with it; and, that he has the verb offerf to aijree with it. 
But the rule begins by saying, " When a noun or pronoun, 
has 720 T;fr6 to agree with it,'* See. 

Sometimes the noun, or pronoun, and the participle, are 
both understood: as, "Conscious of his own weight and 
importance, the aid of others was not solicited.'* Here 
the wor<\b^ he bei?ig^ are understood; that is, ^^ He being 
conscious of his own weight," Sec. 

I will here say a word respecting a particular construc- 
tion of the infinitive mood. You know, that it is generally 
governed by a ^erby noun, adjective, or participle : and, 
that it is some^mes used substantively, and form&the nomi- 
native to a verb. I will now show you, that it is sometimes 
used in neither of these constructions : as, *' 7'o confess 
the truth, I was in fault;" " To e7ijoy present pleasure, 
he sacrificed his future reputation." These are called 
the infinitive mood absolute ; because in such construc- 
tions, theverb in the infinitive mood has no regular de- 
pendence on any governing word. 

The nominative case inde/iendent, the nominative abso- 
lute, and theinjinitive mood a^so/Mife, must always be sepa- 
rated from the body of the sentence by a comma. 

I have now given you all the rules necessary for the 
parsing of any regularly constructed sentence in the Eng- 
lish language. 

You may now practise on the following 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

That it is our duty to promote the purity of our minds 
and bodies, admits not of any doubt in a rational and well- 
informed mind. — To mourn without measure, is folly. — . 
To err is human ; to forgive, divine.-— Continue, my dear 
children, to make virtue your principal study. — To you, 
my worthy benefactors, I am greatly indebted, under Pro- 
vidence, for all that I enjoy. — ^^Come then, companions of 
my toils, let us take fresh courage, persevere, and hope 
to the end. — The rain having ceased, the men pursued 
their journey. — The goods being considerably damaged, 
the merchant sold them very low.— The sun being risen, 




i52 ETYxMOLOGY 



the day became fine. — Shame being lost, all virtue is lost. 
—Thai having been discussed long ago, there is no occa- 
sion to resume it.— I wish that he would lend me that 
book, that you sold him. — I think that, that man that you 
saw, is the wisest one, that ever lived.' — If he do but go, I 
shall be satisfied. — If he did go, I care not. — -Let him take 
heed, that he vlolaie not the laws. — Admonish thy friend, 
that he speaK*norrashly. — The ship rolls. — I see the ship 
roll.— She sings. — I hear her sing. — He comes. — I bade 
him come. — They study. — The master makes them study. 
•—I like him both on his own account, and on that of his 
parents.— Young men are subtle arguers; the cloak of 
honour covers all their faults, as that of passio«j all their 
follies. — What is the reason that our language is less re- 
fined, than that of France? — What you do, doAvell.— Wh^t 
you like, I dislike. — He praises that which you praise. — > 
He praises what you praise.— He extols that which he 
sees. — He extols what he sees. — That, which reason 
weaves, is undone by passion. — rWhat reason weaves by 
passion is undone. — What they cannot but purpose, they 
postpone. — I went myself. — -I hurt myself.— They did it 
themselves. — They went themselves.— He esteems him- 
self too highly. — He understood the matter in the same 
manner himself. — The man, being dismissed from office, 
had no means of support. — The man, being dismissed from 
office, his family suffered. — The man's being dismissed 
from office, was a misfortune to his family. — You sit next 
to your sister. — My house is opposite to yours.-— Pursuant 
to orders, the company met this morning.— 'Agreeably to 
ray request, he came this evening. — He will be remune- 
rated according to his disbursement. — Notwithstanding his 
disappointments, he finally succeeded. 

Tutor. I will now give you some remarks on a figure of 
rhetorick, called ellipsis which will assist yon very much 
in understanding ihe grammatical connexion of words in a 
sentence. 

When a sentence is written out infull^ you now find no 
<lifficuUy in parsing it; but frequently there are words, 
and sometimes a whole clause of a sentence, omitted in 
speaking or writing, which are understood in the mind, as 
necessary to express the complete sense. In such in- 
stances, you will find it necessary to supply the words 
that are omitted, remembering at the same time, thai the 
words which are written, have the same grammatical con- 



* Sec pago 266, note 2c 



AND SYNTAX. 153 

nexion \yith those that are understood, that they would 
have, if they were all on the paper. You will soon be- 
gin the correcting of false syntax, and then you will find 
the remarks I am about to make of considerable advan- 
tage, because there are many errors which you will not 
discover, till you fill up the ellipsis, but Which you will 
then, immediately perceive; and you will, by the same 
means, see the propriety of the corrections. 

To avoid disagreeable repetitions, and to express our 
ideas in few words, an ellipsis, or omission of some words^ 
is frequently admitted. Instead of saying, " He was a 
learned man, he was a wise man, and he was a good man;'* 
we make use of the ellipsis, and say, " He was a learned, 
wise, and good man.'* 

When the omission of words would obscure the sen- 
tence, weaken its force, or be attended with an impro- 
priety, they must be expressed. In the sentence; "We 
are apt to love who love us," the word them should be 
supplied. " A beautiful field and trees," is not proper 
language; because, when we fill up the ellipsis, it would 
be, " A beautiful field and a beautiful trees;" for, when 
conjunctions connect two or more nouns, the same words 
that are applied to the first, belong also to the others, un- 
less such connexion is broken by expressing different 
words. It should be, " Beautiful fields and trees;" or, 
*' A beautiful field and fine trees." 

Almost all compounded sentences, are more or less el- 
liptical; some examples of which may be seen under the 
different parts of speech. 

1. The noun is frequently omitted in the following man- 
ner. '^ The laws of God and man ;" that is, *' the laws of 
God and the laws of man." In some very emphatical ex- 
pressions, the ellipsis should not be used : as, "Christ 
the power of God, and the wisdom of God;" which is 
more emphatical than, " Christ the power and wisdom of 
God." 

2. The ellipsis of the -verb is used in the following in- 
stances. " The man was old and crafty ;" that is, " the 
man was old, and the man was crafty." " She was young, 
and beautiful and good;" that is, " She was young, she 
was beautiful, and she was good." ." Thou art poor, and 
wretched, and miserable, and blind, and naked." If we 

.would fill up the ellipsis in the last sentence, thou art 
Qught to be repeated before each of the adjectives. 

Jf, in such enumerationj we choose to point out one pro- 



154 ETYMOLOGY 

peVty above the rest, that property must be placed last, 
and the ellipsis supplied: as, " She is young and beautiful, 
and she is good." 

^' I went to see and hear him;" that is, " I went to sec 
him, and I went to hear him." In this instance, there is 
not only ap elRpsis of the governing verb, loent^ but like- 
wise of the sign of the infinitive mood, which is governed 
by it. - 

Z)o, did^ have^ had^ shall, will, may, might, and tKe rest 
of the auxiliaries of the compound tenses, are frequently 
used alone, to spare the repetition of the verb : as, " He 
regards his word, but thou dost not;" i.e. "dost not re- 
gard it." " We succeeded, but they did not:" "did not 
succeed," *' I have learned my task, biit yoii have not;'* 
*•' have not learned," "They must, and they shall b6^^ 
punished:" that is, " they must be punished." - ^ 

The auxiliary verbs are often very propei4y Otnitted be- 
fore the principal verb: as, " I have seen and heard him 
frequently;" not, " I have heard :"'"Hc will lose his es- 
tate, and incur reproach;" not "he will incur." But 
when any thing is emphatically ejipressed, or when oppo- 
sition is denoted, this ellipsis should be avoided: as, "I 
have seen, and 1 have heard him too;" " He was admired, 
but he v/as not beloved." 

3. The ellipsis of the article is thus used: "A man, 
woman, and child;" that is, "a man, a woman, and a 
child." " A house and garden ;" that is, " A house and a 
garden." " The sun and moon;" that is, " the sun and 
the moon." "The day and hour;" that is, "the day and 
the hour." In all these instances, the article being once 
expressed, the repetition of it becomes unnecessary. 
There is, however, an exception to this observation, when 
some peculiar emphasis requires a repetition ; as in the 
following sentence : "NjOt only the year, but the day and 
the hour." In this case the ellipsis of the last article 
would be improper. When a different form of the article 
is requisite, the article also is properly repeated: as, " a 
house and an orchard;" instead of, "a house and or^ 
chard." 

4. The ellipsis of the adjective is used in the following 
manner. " A delightful garden and orchard ;" that is, " a 
delightful garden and a delightful orchard." " A little man 
and woman ;" that is, " A little man and'a little woman." 
In such elliptical expressions as these, the adjective ought 
to have exactly the same significationj and to be quite as 



AND SYNTAX. 155 

proper, when joined to the latter substantive as the for- 
mer; otherwise the ellipsis should not be admitted. 

Sometimes the ellipsis is improperly applied to nouns of 
different numbers: as, "a magnificent house and gar- 
dens." In this case it is better to use another adjective-; 
as, "A magnificent house and fine gardens." 

5. In the following example, the pronoun and participle 
are omitted: "Conscious of his own weight and import- 
ance, the aid of others was not solicited.'* Here the words 
/(£ being are understood; that is, " He being conscious of 
his-own weight and importance.'* This clause constiiutes 
^he case absolute, or, the nominative absolute; which is 
not so obvious before, as after the ellipsis is supplied. 

6. The ellipsis of the adverb is used in the following 
manner. "He spoke and acted wisely;" that is,- "He 
spoke wisely, and he acted wisely." " Thrice I went and 
offered my service;" that is, "Thrice I went, and thrice 
I offered my service." 

7. The following is the ellipsis of the pronoun, " I 
Jove and fear him ;" that is, " I love him, and I fear him." 
" My house and lands ;" that is, " my house and my lands." 
In these instances the ellipsis may take place with proprie- 
ty; but if we would be more express and emphatieal, it 
must not be used; as, " His friends and his foes." " My 
sons and my daughters." 

In some of the common forms of speech, the irplative 
pronoun is usually omitted : as, "This is the man they 
love;" instead of, " This is the man whom they love." 
"These are the goods they bought;" for, "These are 
the goods. wA/c>^ they bought." 

In complex sentences, it is much better to have the 
relative pronoun expressed: as, it is more proper to say, 
" The posture in which I lay," than, "In the posture I 
lay:" "The horse on which I rode, fell down;" than, 
" The horse I rode fell down." 

The antecedent and the relative connect the parts of a 
sentence together ; and, to prevent obscurity and confu- 
sion, they should answer to each other with great exact- 
ness. *' We speak that we do know, and testify that we 
jbave seen." Here the ellipsis is manifestly improper, and 
ought to be supplied: as, " We speak that -ty/izcA we do 
know, and testify that which we have seen." 

8. The ellipsis oi xhe prep o sit ion ^ as well as of the verb, 
is seen in the following instances : " He went into the ab- 
beys, halls, and public buildings;" that is, " He went into 



156 ETYMOLOGir 

he abbeys, he we'nt into the halls, and he went into the 
public buildings.'* " He also went through all the streeisj 
and lanes of the city:*^' that is, J' Through all ihe streets, 
and through all the lanes," &c. "He spoke to every 
man and woman there," that is, "to every man and to 
every woman *- " This day, next month, last year ;" that 
is, " on this day, in the next nnonth, in the last year." 
"The Lord do that which seemeth binigood;" that is, 
"which seemeth ;o him." 

9. The ellipsis of the conjunction is as follows: " They 
confess the power, wisdoni, goodness, and love of their 
Creator;" i.e. " the power, a;irf wisdom, and goodness, 
and love of," &c. " Though I love him, I do not flatter 
him," that is, "Though I love him, yet I do not flatter 
him." 

There is a very common ellipsis of the conjunction 
that: as, "He told me he would proceed immediately;'* 
"I desire he would not be too hasty;" "I fear it comes 
too much from the heart:" instead of " He told me that 
he would proceed immediately ;" " I desired that he would 
not be too hasty;*' "I fear that it comes too much frorti 
the heart." — This ellipsis is tolerable in conversation, and 
in epistolary writing : but it should be sparingly indulged^ 
in every other species of composition. The French do 
not use this mode of expression: thpy avoid the ellipsis 
on such occasions, 

10. The ellipsis of the interjection is not very common : 
it, however, is sometimes used : as, " Oh I pity and 
shame 1'* that is, " O pity I Oh shame!" 

As the ellipsis occurs in almost every sentence in the 
English language, numerous examples of it might be given: 
but only a few more can be admitted here. 

In the following instance, there is a very considerable 
one: "He will often argue, that if this part of our trade 
were well cultivated, we should gain from one nation ; and 
if another, from another;'* that is, "He will often argue, 
that if this part of our trade were well cultivated, we 
should gain from one nation, and if another part of our 
trade were wtU. cultivated, we should gain from another 
nation." 

Sometimes a considerable part of a sentence is properly 
omitted, when we presume that the nominative case and 
its whole regimen may be readily understood : as, '' Na- 
ture has given to animals one time to act, and another to 
rest ;'* instead of saying : " Nature has given to animals 



AND SYNTAX. 157 

^Qe time to act, and nature has given to aninaals another 
time to rest." 

The following instances, though short, contain much of 
the ellipsis ; " Wo is me ;" i. e. " wo is to me." " To 
let blood ;" i. e. " to let out blood." " To let down :'* i. e. 
"to let it fall or slide down.'* *' To walk a mile ;" i. e. 
*' to walk through the space of a mile." " To sleep all 
night;" i. e. " to sleep through all the night." "To go 
a fishing;'* " To go a hunting;*' i. e. " to go on a fishing- 
voyage or business;" " to go on a hunting party.*' "I 
tline at two o'clock ;" i. e. "at two of the clock." " By 
sea, by land, on shore;" i.e. "By the sea, by the land, 
on the shore." 

After the woYdnotwitftstanding^whcn used as a conjunc- 
tion disjunctive, or a /irefiositio?i, we frequently omit the 
whole succeeding member of the sentence ; and in this 
use of notwithstanding^ we have a striking proof^of the va- 
lue of abbreviations in language. For example : "Moses 
^aid, Let no man leave of it till the morning : notwithstand- 
»7^, they hearkened not unto him.'* Here notivithstand- 
£>z^ appears without the clause to which it belongs; and 
to complete the sense in words, it would be necessary to 
repeat the whole preceding clause, or the substance of it. 
■— " Moses said. Let no man leave of it until the morning. 
JVotwit/is tanding this command of Moses^ or, notioithstand- 
•!ng Moses said that which has been recited^ they hearkened 
not unto Moses. "^ — "Folly meets with success in this 
world : but it is true notwithstanding^ that it labours un- 
der disadvantages." This passage, at length, would read 
thus : " P'olly meets with success in this world : but it is 
true, notwithstanding folly meets with success in thisivorld, 
:hat it labours under disadvantages." 

It i§not unusual to apply a pronoun, this^ that^ which, or 
whatf X'O represent nearly the whole of a sentence; as, 
" Bodies which have no taste, and no power of affecting 
the skin, may, notwithstanding this, act upon organs which 
are more delicate.'* Here this stands for, " they have no 
■taste, a7id no fiower to affect the skin^** and is governed by 
the preposition notwithstanding. 

1 1. The examples that follow are produced to show the 
impropriety of ellipsis in some particular cases. ** The 
land was always possessed, during pleasure, by those in- 
trusted with the command;" it should be, " those/iersons 
intrusted;" or, " those who were intrusted.*' " If he had 
read further, he would have found several of his objec- 



13S ETYMOLOGY 

tions might have been spared ;" that is, " he would have 
found that several of his objections," Sec. *' There is no- 
thing men are more deficient in, than knowing their own 
characters." It ought to be, " nothing mwMc/i men;" 
and, " than in knowing." *^I scarcely know any part of 
natural philosophy would yield more variety and use:** it 
should be, ^^which would yield," Sec. " In the temper of 
mind he then was;" i. e. " in which he then was." "The 
little satisfaction and consistency, to be found in most of 
the systems of divinity I have met with, made me betake 
myself to the sole reading of the Scriptures :" it ought to 
be, '^ which are to be found," and " ivhicli I have met 
with." " He desired they might go to the altar together, 
and jointly return their thanks to whom only they were 
due ; i. e. " He desired that they might go to the altar to- 
gether, and jointly return their thanks to him Xo ivhow 
only they were due." 



CONVERSATION XXI 



Tutor. In most languages, there are some verbs whicli 
are defective with respect to ipersons. These are deno- 
minated impersonal verbs. They are used only in the 
third person, because they refer to a subject peculiarly 
appropriated to that person: as, "It rains, it snows, it 
hails, it lightens, it thunders." But as the word imper- 
sonal implies a total absence of persons, it is improperly 
applied to those verbs which have a person : and .hence 
it is manifest, that there is no such thing in the English, 
nor indeed, in any language, as a sort of verbs really im- 
personal. 

The plea urged to prove the existence of impersonal 
verbs is, in substance, as follows : and you will perceive 
that it is jiot wholly destitute of plausibility. There are 
certain verbs which do not admit for their subject any 
thing that has life, or any thing that is strictly definable: 
such as, "It snows, it hails, it freezes, it rains, it lightens, 
it thunders." In this point of view, and with this expla- 
nation, it is supposed,. by some grammarians, that our laii- 



AND SYNTAX. 159 

guage contains a few impersonal verbs; that is, verbs 
which declare the existence of some action or state, but 
which do not refer it to any animate being, or any de- 
terminate particular subject. 

The whole number of verbs in the English language, 
regular and irregular, simple and compounded, taken to- 
gether, is about 4300. The number of irregular verbs, 
the defective included, is about 177. 

The whole number of words, after deducting proper 
najnes, and the inflections of our verbs and nouns, does 
not exceed forty thousand. 

George. What you have just said of imfiersonal verbs, 
reminds me of a sentence, which I saw the other day. It 
was this : " There needs no ghost come from the grave 
to tell us this." I could not parse 7ieeds. 

Tutor. JVeeds i^ frequently used in this manner: as, 
"• There needs more assistance;" " there needs one more 
to make up the number;" and Pope says, " There needs 
but thinking right, and meaning well." 

It is, doubtless, a contraction oineed is, the nominative 
and the verb: as, ^^ There need is of no ghost," &c. or 
" There is need of," Sec. " There need is of more assist- 
ance." JVeeds is sometimes used as an adverb: as, " Of- 
fences must needs come," &c. ; " He needs would show liis 
master what his art could do ;" that is, 7iecessarily, 

Before you commence the correcting of false syntax, it 
is proper, that you should be exercised more in parsing, 
I will give you a few lessons in which you will find some 
constructions more difficult than any which you have yet 
had ; but comprehend the sense of the author, supply the 
ellipsis, and you will not find much difficulty. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING, 

<i feit) instances of the same nvord's constituting several of 
the fiarts of speech. 

Calm was the day, and the scene delightful. 

We may expect a calm r-fter a storm. 

To prevent passion is easier than to calm it. 

Better is a little with content, than a great deal with 
anxiety. 

The gay and dissolute think little of the miseries, which 
are stealing softly after them. 

A little attention will rectify some errors. 



J60 ETYMOLOGY 

Though he is out ofdanger, he is still afraid 

He laboured to still the tumult. 

Fair and softly go far. 

The fair M^as numerously attended. 

His character is fair and honourable. 

Damp air is unwholesome. 

Guilt often casts a damp over our sprightliest hours. 

Soft bodies damp the sound much more than hard ones.. 

Though she is rich and fair, yet she is TK)t amiable. 

They are yet young, and must suspend their judgment 
yet a while. 

Many persons are better than we suppose them to bcv 

The few and the many have their prepossessions. 

Few days pass witliout some clouds. 

The hail was very destructive. 

Hail virtue 1 source of every good 

We hail you as friends. 

Much money is corrupting. 

Think much, and speak little. 

He has seen much of the world, and been much caress- 
ed. 

His years are more than hers, but he has not more 
knowledge. 

The more we are blessed, the more grateful we shoulr 
be. 

The desire of getting more is rarely satisfied. 

He has equal knowledge, but inferior judgment. 

She is his inferior in sense, but his equal in prudence^ 

Every being loves its like. 

We must make a like space between the lines. 

Behave yourselves like men. 

We are too apt to like pernicious company 

He may go or stay as he likes. 

They strive to learn. 

He goes to and fro. 

To his wisdom we owe our privilege. 

The proportion is ten to one. 

He has served them with his utmost ability 

When we do our utmost, no more is required. 

I will submit, for I know submission brings peace. 

It is for our health to be temperate. 

Oh ! for better times. 

I have a regard for him. 

He is esteemed, both on his o-vvn account, and on that oi 
his parents. 



f 



"^nl 



AND SYNTAX, 16 i 

Both of them deserve praise. 

Yesterday was a fine day. 

I rode out yesterday. 

I shall write to-morrow. 

To-morrow may be brighter th|in to-day* 

Promiscuous JLxercises in Parsi7ig. 

PROSE. 

Dissimulation in youth, is the forerunner of perfidy in 
old age. Its first appearance is the fatal omen of grow- 
ing depravity, and future shame. 

If we- possess not the power of self-government, we 
shall be the prey of every loose inclination, that chances 
to arise. Pampered by continual indulgence, all our pas- 
sions will become mutinous and headstrong. Desire, not 
reason, will be the ruling principle of our conduct. 

Absurdly we spend our time in contending about the 
trifles of a day, while we ought to be preparing for a high- 
er existence. 

How little do they know of the true happiness of life, 
who are strangers to that intercourse of good offices and 
kind affections, which, by a pleasing charm, attaches men 
to one another, and circulates rational enjoyment from 
heart to heart. 

If we view ourselves, with all our imperfections and 
failings, ill a just light, we shall rather be surprised at our 
enjoying* so many good things, than discontented, because 
there are any which we want. 

True cheerfulness makes a man happy in himself, and 
promotes the happiness of all around him. It is the clear 
and calm surishine of a mind illuminated by piety^ and vir- 
tue. 

Wherever views of interest, and prospects of return, 
mingle with the feelings of affections, sensibility acts an 
imperfect part, and entitles us to a small share of com- 
mendation. 

Let not your expectations from the years that are to 
come, rise too high ; and your disappointments will be 
fewer, and more easily supported. 

To live long, ought not to be your favourite wish, so 
much as to live well. By continuing too long on earth, 
we might only live to witness a greater number of mtUn- 
Gholy scenes, and to expose ourselves to a wider compass 
of human wb. 

*See page 198-9, Note 1. and 2. 
02 



162 ETYMOLOGY 

How many pass away some of the most valuable yeari 
of their lives, tossed in a whirlpool of what cannot be caU^ 
ed pleasure, so much as mere giddiness and folly 1 " '^ 

Look around you with attentive eye, and weigh charac- 
ters well, before you connect yourselves too closely with 
any who court your society. 

The true honour of man consists not in the multitude of 
riches, or the elevation of rank; for experience shows, 
that thesei may be possessed by the worthless, as well as 
the deserving. 

Beauty of form has often betrayed its possessor. The 
flower is easily blasted. It is short lived at the best; and 
trifling, at any rate, in comparison with the higher, and 
more lasting beauties of the mind. 

A contented temper opens a clear sky, and brightens 
every object around us. It is in the sullen and dark shade 
of discontent, that noxious passions, like venomous ani- 
mals, breed and prey upon the heart. 

Thousands whom indolence has sunk into contemptible 
obscurity, might have come forward to usefulness and ho- 
nour, if idleness had not frustrated the effects of all their 
powers. 

Sloth is like the slowly flowing^ putrid stream, which 
stagnates in the marsh, breeds venomous animals, and^joi- 
sonous plants ; and infects with pestilential vjipour the 
whole country round it. 

Disappointments derange, and overcome, vulgar minds. 
The patient and the wise, by a proper improvement, fre- 
quently make them contribute to their high advantage. 

Whatever fortune may rob us of,-it cannot take away 
what is most valuable, the peace of a good conscience, and 
the cheering prospect of a happy conclusion to all the tri- 
als of life, in a better world. 

Be not overcome by the injuries you meet with, so as* 
to pursue revenge ; by the disasters of life, so as to sink 
into despair; by the evil examples of the world, so as to 
follow them into sin. Overcome injuries, by forgiveness; 
disasters, by fortitude ; evil examples, by firmness of prin- 
ciple. 

Sobriety of mind is one of those virtues, which the 
present condition of human life strongly inculcates. The 
uncertainty of its enjoyments, checks presumption; the 
multiplicity of its dangers, demands perpetual caution. 
Moderation, vigilance, and self-government, are duties in- 

* JtSf following 50, sometimes governs the infinitive mood. See 
?,sc. XV. page 243, rule XX, Read all that is written under this rule* 



AND SYNTAX. i-63 

cumbent on all, but especially on such as are beginfhing 
the journey of life. 

The chariTfis and comforts of virtue are inexpressible; 
and can only be justly conceived by those who possess her. 
The consciousness of Divine approbation and support, and 
the steady hope of future happiness, conununicate a peace 
and joy, to which all the' delights of the world bear no re° 
semblance. 

If we knew^how much the pleasures of this life deceive 
and betray their unhappy votaries ; and reflected on the 
disappointments in pursuit, the dissatisfactibn in enjoy- 
ment, or {he uncertainty of possession, which every where 
attend tliem ; we should cease to be enamoured with these 
brittle and transient joys ; and should wisely fix our hearts 
on those virtuous attainments which the world can neither 
give nor take away. 

POETRY. 

Order is Heaven's first law : and this confess'd, 
Some are, and must be, greater than the rest, 
More rich, more wise; but who infers from hence, 
That such are happier, shocks all common sense. 

Needful austerities our wills restrain ; 

As thorns fence in the tender plant from harm. 

Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense. 
Lie in three words, health, peace, and competencCj 
But health consists with temperance alone; 
And peace, O Virtue! peace is all thy own. 

On earth nought precious is obtain'd, 

But what is painful too; 
By travel and to travel born, 

Our sabbaths are but few. 

Who noble ends by noble means obtains, 
Or failing smiles in exile or in chains. 
Like good Aurelius let him reign, or bleed 
Like Socrates, that man is great indeed. 

Our hearts are fastened to this world, 
By strong and endless ties; 



164 ETYMOLOGY 

But ev*ry sorrow cuts a string, 
And urges us to rise. 

Oft pining cares in rich brocades are dress'd, 
And diamonds glitter on an anxious breast. 

Teach me to feel another*s wo,' 

To hide the fault I see; 
That mercy I to others show; 

That mercy show to me. 
This day be bread, and peace, my lot; 

All else beneath the sun 
Thou know'sl if best bestow'd or not; 

And let thy will be done. 

Vice is a monster of so frightful mfien 
As, to be haled, needs but to be seen : 
Yet seen too oft, familiar with her face, 
We first endure, then pity, then embrace. 

If nothing more than purpose in thy power, 
Thy purpose firm, is equ«al to the deed : 
Who does the best his circumstance allows 
Does well, acts nobly; angels can no more. 

In faith and hope the world will disagree; 
But all mankind's concern is charity. 

To be resign'd when ills betide, 
Patient when favours are denied, 

And Pleas'd with favours given; 
Most surely this is Wisdom's part, 
This is that incense of the heart, 

Whose fragrance smells to Heav'n. 

All fame is foreign but of true desert ; 

Plays round the head, but comes not to the heart; 

One self-approving hour whole years outweighs 

Of stupid starers, and of loud huzzas; 

And more true joy Marcellus exil'd feels, 

Than Csesar with a senate at his heels. 

Far from the madding crowd's ignoble strife. 
Their sober wishes never learned to stray; 



*i( 



AND SYNTAX. 165 

Along the cool sequester'd vale of life, 

They kept the noiseless tenor of their v/ay'. 

What nothing earthly gives, or can destroy. 
The soul's calm sunshine, and the heartfelt joy, 
Is virtue's prize. 

Pity the sorrows of a poor old man, 
Whose trembUng limbs have borne him to your door. 
Whose days are dwindled to the shortest span : 
Oh ! give relief, and Heav'n will bless your store. 

Wha lives to nature, rarely can be poor; 
Who lives to fancy, never can be rich. 

When young, life's journey I began, 

The glitt'ring prospect charm'd myeyes; 
I saw, along th' extended plain, 

Joy after joy successive rise. 
But soon I found 'twas all a drearn : 

And learn'd the fond pursuit to shun, 
Where few can reach the purpos'd aim, 

And thousands daily are undone. 

Tis greatly wise to talk with our past hours ; 

A.nd ask them what report they bore to Heav'n, 

All nature is but art unknown to thee ; 

All chance, direction which thou can'st not see i 

All discord, harmony not understood : 

AH partial evil, universal good. 

ileav'n's choice is safer than our own t 

Of ages past inquire. 
What the most formidable fate ; 

" To have our own desire.'* 

Two Principles in human nature reign ; 
Self-love to urge, and Reason, to restrain : 
Nor this a good, uor that a bad we call, 
Each works its end, to move or govern all : 
Vnd to their proper operation still, 
Ascribe all Good, to their improper, III. 

Self-love, the spring of motion, acts the soul j 
Reason's comparing balance rules the whole. 



i66 ETYMOLOGY 

Man but for* that, no action could attend, 
"And, but for this, were active to no end ; 
Fix'd like a plant on his peculiar spot, 
To draw nutrition, propagate, and rot : 
Or, meteor-like, flame lawless thro* the void, 
Destroying others, by himself destroyed. 

Most strength the moving principle requires: 
Active its task, it prompts, impels, inspires. 
Sedate and quiet the comparing lies, 
Form'd but to check, delib'rate, and advise. 
Self-love still stronger as its objects nigh ; 
Reason's at distance, and in prospect lie : 
That sees immediate good by present sense: 
Reason, the future and the consequence. 
Thicker than arguments, temptations throng, 
At best more watchful this, but that more strong 
The action of the stronger to suspend, 
Reason still use, to reason still attend. 
Attention, habit and experience gains, 
Each strengthens Reason, and Self-love restrains. 
Let subtle schoolmen teach these friends to fightj 
More studious to divide than to unite : 
And Grace and Virtue, Sense and Reason split; 
With all the rash dexterity of wit. 
Wits, just like fools, at war about a name, 
Have full as oft no meaning, or the same. 
Self-love and Reason to one end aspire. 
Pain their aversion. Pleasure their desire : 
But greedy That, its object would devour, 
This taste the honey, and not wound the flow'r : 
Pleasure, or wrong, or rightly understood, 
Our greatest evil, or our greatest good. 

Whate'er the passion, knowledge, fame, or pelf, 
Not one will change his neighbour Avith himself. 
The learn'd is happy nature to explore, 
The fool is happy that he knows no more ; 
The rich is happy in the plenty giv*n. 
The poor contents him with the care of Heav'n. 
See the blind bege;ar dance, the cripple sing, 
The sot a hero, lunatic a king; 

* Biitfovy must here be taken together as a compound preposi- 
tioji, equivalent to rcithont. . We cannot parse them separately, 
without perverting the sense of the author. 



AND SYNTAX. 167 

The starving chymist ih his golden views 
Supremely blest, the poet in 1iis muse. 

See some strange comfort ev'ry state attend, 
And pride bestowM on all, a common friend ; 
See some fit passion ev'ry age supply, 
Hope travels thro', nor quits us when we die. 

Behold the child, by nature's kindly law, 
Pleas'd with a rattle, tickled with a straw ; 
Some livelier plaything gives his youth delight, 
A little louder, but as empty quite : 
Scarfs, garters, gold, amuse his riper stage. 
And beads and prayer-books are the toys of age : 
Pleas'd with this bauble still, as that before ; 
Till tir'd he sleeps, and life's poor play is o'er- 
Meanwhile opinion gilds with varying rays 
Those painted clouds that beautify our days ; 
Each want of happiness by hope supply'd. 
And each vacuity of sense by pride : 
These build as fast as knowledge can destroy j 
In folly's cup still laughs the bubble joy ; 
One prospect lost, another still we gain ; 
And not a vanity is giv'n in vain ; 
Ev'n mean self-love becomes, by force divine, 
The scale to measure others' wants by thine. 
See! and confess, one comfort sill must rise: 
'Tis this, 'Tho' man's a fool, yet God is wise. 

Whether with Reason or with Instinct blest ; 
Know, all enjoy that pow'r which suits them best ; 
To bliss alike by that direction tend, 
And find the means proportion'd to their end. 
Say, where full Instinct is th' unerring guide. 
What Pope or council can they need beside? 
Reason, however able, cool at best, 
Cares not for service, or but serves when prest, 
Stays till we call, and then not often near; 
But honest Instinct comes a volunteer. 
Sure never to o'ershoot, but just to hit ; 
While still too wide or short is human wit j 
Sure by quick Nature, happiness to gain, 
Which heavier Reason labours at in vain. 
This too, serves always. Reason never long: 
One must go right, the other may go wrong. 
See then the acting and comparing pow'rs 
One in their nature, which are two in ours ! 



68 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX, 



And Reason raise o'er Instinct as you can. 
In this, 'tis God directs, in that *tis Man. 
Who taught the nations of the field and wood 
To shun their poison, and to choose their food i 
Prescient, the tides or tempests to withstand. 
Build on the wave, or arch beneath the sand ? 
Who made the Spider parallels design. 
Sure as De ikfoiiy re,, without rule or line ? 
Who bid the Stork, Columbus like, explore 
Heav'ns not his own, and worlds unknown before' 
Who calls the council, states the certain day^ 
^Vho forms the phalanx^ and who points the way 



SYNTAX. 169 



ADDITIONAL REMARKS. 



OF SYNTAX, 



SECTION L 



The third part of Grammar is called SY>frAx, which 
treats of the agreement and construction of words in a 
sentence. 

A sentence is an assemblage of words, forming a com- 
plete sense. 

Sentences are of two kinds, simple and compound. 

A simple sentence has in it but one subject, and one 
finite verb : as, " Life is short." 

A compound sentence consists of two or more simple 
sentences, connected together : as, " Life is short, and art 
is long." " Idleness produces want, vice, and misery." 

As sentences themselves are divided into simple and 
compound, so the members of sentences may be divided 
likewise into simple and compound members : for whole 
sentences, whether simple or compounded, may become 
members of other sentences, by means of some additional 
connexion ; as in the following example : " The ox know- 
eth his owner, and the ass his master's crib; but Israel 
doth not know, my people do not consider." This sen- 
tence consists of two compounded members, each of which 
is subdivided into two simple members, which are proper- 
ly called clauses. 

There are three sorts of simple sentences ; the exfilica- 
live., or explaining ; the interrogative^ or asking; the im- 
perative^ or commanding. 

An explicative sentence is, when a thing is said to be or 
not to be, to do or not to do, to suffer or not to suffer, in 
a direct manner: as, "I am; thou writest; Thomas is 
loved." If the sentence be negative, the adverb not is 
placed after the auxiliary, or after the verb itself when it 
has no auxiliary : as, " I did not touch him ;" or, " I touch- 
ed him not." 



iro SYNTAX. 

In an interrogative sentence, or when a question is ask- 
ed, the nominative case follows the principal verb, or the 
auxiliary: as, "Was it he?" "Did Alexander conquer 
the Persians ?" 

In an imperative sentence, when a thing is commanded 
to be, to do, to suffer, or not, the^omii;ative case like- 
wise follows the verb or the auxiliary : as, " Go, thou 
traitor T" "Do thou go:" " Haste ye awayi«4' unless the 
verb let be used; as, " Let us be gone." .- 

A phrase is two or more words rightly put together, 
making sometimes part of a sentence, and someiitnes a 
whole sentence. * 

The principal* parts of a simple sentence are, the sub- 
ject, the attribute, and the object. 

The subject is the thing chiefly spoken of; the attribute 
is the thing or action affirmed or denied of it;^nd the ob- 
ject is the thing affected by such action. 

The nominative denotes the subject, and usually goesbe- 
fore the verb or attribute; and the word or phrase, de- 
noting the object, follows the verb: as, " A wise tiian 
governs his passions," Here, a luise man is the subject; 
governs^ the attribute, or thing affirmed ; and his /lassionSf 
the object. 

Syntax principally consists of twp parts. Concord and 
Government. 

Concord is the agreement which one word has with an- 
Gthier, in gender, number, case, or person. 

Government is that power which one part of speech has 
over another, in directing its mood, tense, or case, 

I shall now proceed to recapitulate all the rules, and 
give some illustrations, and notes under each, and then 
add exercises in false syntax, for you to correct and parse. 
If you attend well to the illustrations, and the notes, 
yoti will be able to make the proper corrections, in all 
similar constructions. 

RULE L 

v4 verb must agree with its nominative case in number 
and person. 

The following are a few instances of the violation 
of this rule. " What signifies good opinions, when our 
practice is bad?" "what signify." "There's two or 
three of us, who have seen the work :" " there, are." 
" We may suppose there was more impostors than one;'* 
*' there were more." " I have considered what have been 



SYNTAX. in 

said on both sides in this controversy :" " what has been 
3aid." " If thou would be healthy, live temperately :'* 
^'if ihow lOGuldst.'' "Thou sees how little has been 
done:" " thou sees?." "Though thou cannot do much 
for the cause, thou may and should do something:" 
^^ canst not, mayst, ^wJi shouldst,'^ "Full m^ny a flower 
are born to blush unseen;" "is born." "A conformity 
of inclinations and qualities prepare us for friendship :" 
" fir( flares us."" " A variety of blessings have been con- 
ferred Upon us ;" " has been." " In piety and virtue con- 
sist the happiness of man :" " consists.^* " To these pre- 
cepts are subjoined a copious selection of rules and max- 
ims:" "is subjoinedi" ; 

1. Every verb, except in the infinitive mood, or the 
participle, ought to have a nominative case, either ex- 
pressed or implied: as, " Awake j arise ;" that is, 
*' Aw£^ke ye; arise ye." 

I shall here add some examples of inaccuracy, in the 
use of thfe verb without its nominative case. " As it hath 
pleased him of his goodness to give you safe deliverance, 
and hath preserved you in the great danger," Sec. The 
verb " hath fires ewe d^^ has here no nominative case j for it 
cannot be properly supplied by the preceding word, " him,** 
which is in the objective case. It ought to be, " and as 
he hath fire served you ; or rather, " and to fireserve you.** 
*' If the calm in which he was born, and lasted so long, had 
continued;" " and which lasted," Sec. " These we have 
extracted from an^ historian of undoubted credit, and are 
the same that were practised," &c. : " and ^/tei/ are the 
same." "A man whose inclinations led him to be cor- 
rupt, and had great abilities to manage the business;'* 
" and w/jo had," See. " A cloud gathering in the north ; 
which we have helped to raise, and may quickly break in 
a storm upon our heads;" ** and which may quickly." 

2. Every nominative case, except the case absolute, 
and when an address is made to a person, should belong to 
some verh, either expressed or implied : as, " Who wrote 
this book ?" " James;" that is, " James wrote it." " To 
whom thus Adani," that is,. " spoke." "Who invent- 
ed the telescope?" " Galileo;" that is, "Galileo invented 
the telescope." 

One or two instances of the improper use of the nomi- 
native case, without any verb, expressed or implied, to 
answer it, may be sufficient to illustrate the usefulness of 
the preceding observation. 



172 SYNTAX. 

<^ WMc/i rule, if it had been observed, a neighbouring 
prince would have wanted a great deal of that incense, 
which hath been offered up to him," The pronoun it is 
here the nominative case to the verb "observed;'* and 
"ivhic/i rule, is left by itself, a nominative case without any 
verb following it. This form of expression, though im- 
proper, is very common. It ought to be, " If this rule 
had been observed," &c. " Man, though he has a great 
variety of thoughts, and such from which others as well 
as himself might receive profit and delight, yet they are 
all within his own breast." In this sentence, the nomi- 
native man stands alone and unconnected with any verb, 
either expressed or implied. It should be, " Though 
-man has great variety," &:c. 

3. When a verb comes between two nouns, either of 
which may be understood as the subject of the affirmation, 
it may agree with either of them ; but some regard must 
be had to that which is more naturally the subject of it, 
as also to that which stands next to the verb : as, " His 
meat was locusts and wild honey ;" " A great cause of the 
low state of industry were the restraints put upon it;" 
** The wages of sin is death." 

In such instances of those which follow, either of the 
clauses may be considered as the nominative to the verb. 
" To show how the understanding proceeds herein, is the 
design of the following discourse." This sentence may be 
inverted without changing a single word : " The design of 
the following discourse is, to show how the understanding 
proceeds herein." " To fear no eye, and to suspect no 
tongue, is the great prerogative of innocence." This sen- 
tence may be inverted : but, according to the English 
idiom, the pronoun it would, in that case, precede the 
verb : as, " It is the prerogative of innocence, to fear no 
eye, and to suspect no tongue." 

The nominative case is commonly placed before the 
verb ; but sometimes it is put after the verb, if it is a sim- 
ple tense; and between the auxiliary, and the verb or par- 
ticiple, if a compound tense: as, 

1st, When a question is asked, a command given, or a 
Avish expressed: as, '' Confidest thou in me?" "Read 
thou ;" " Mayst thou be happy 1" " Long live the King I" 

2d, When a supposition is made, without the conjunc- 
tion if: as, " Were it not for this;" " Had I been 
there," 



SYNTAX. 173 

3d, When a verb neuter is used : as, " On a sudden ap- 
peared the king." *' Above it stood the seraphim." 

4th, When the verb is preceded by the adverbs, here^ 
ihere^ then^ thence^ thusy 8cc. : as, " Here am 1 ;" " There 
was he slain;" "Then cometh 'he end;" "Thence arri- 
seth his grief;" "Hence proceeds his anger;" "Thus 
was the affair settled." 

5th, When a sentence depends on neither or nor^ so as 
to be coupled with another sentence : as, " Ye shall not 
eat of it, neither shall ye touch it, lest ye die." 

6th, When an emphatical adjective introduces a sen- 
tence: as, "Happy is the man, whose heart does not re- 
proach him." 

You can now correct the following 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

Disappointments sinks the heart of man ; but the re- 
newal of hope give consolation. 

The smiles that encourage severity of judgment, hides 
malice and insincerity. 

He dare not act contrany to his instructions. 

Fifty pounds of wheat contains forty pounds of flour. 

The mechanism of clocks and watches, were totally un- 
known a few centuries ago. 

The number of inhabitants in Great Britain and Ireland, 
do not exceed sixteen millions. 

Nothing but vain and foolish pursuits delight some per- 
sons. 

A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. 

So much both oT ability and merit are seldom found. 

In the conduct of Parmenio, a mixture of wisdom and 
folly were very conspicuous. 

He is an author of more credit than Plutarch, or any- 
other, that write lives too hastily. 

The inquisitive and curious is generally talkative. 

Great pains has been taken to reconcile the parties. 

I am sorry to say it, but there was more equivocators 
than ane. 

The sincere is always esteemed. 

Has the goods been sold to advantage ? and did thou em- 
brace the proper season ? 

There is many occasions in life, in which silence and 
simplicity is true wisdom. 

The generaus never recounts minutely the actions they 
have done; nor the prudent those they will do. 

He need not proceed in such haste. 

p 2 



J74> SYNTAX. 

The business that related to ecclesiastical meetings, mat 
ters and persons, were lo be ordered according to the king's 
direction. 

In him were happily blended true dignity with softnes^; 
of manners. 

The support of so many of his relations, were a heavy 
tax upon his industry; but thou knows he paid it cheer- 
fully. 

What avails the best sentiments, if persons do not IWc 
suitably to them ? 

Reconciliation was offered, on conditions as moderate as 
was consistent with a permanent union. 

Not one of them whom thou sees clothed in purple, are 
completely happy. 

And the fame of this person, and of his wonderful ac- 
tions, were diffused throughout the country. 

The variety of the productions- of genius, like that of the 
operations of nature, are without limit. 

In vain our flocks and fields increase our store, 
When our abundance make us wish for more. 

Thou should love thy neighbour as sincerely as thou 
loves thyself. 

Has thou no better reason for censuring thy friend and 
companion? 

Thou who art the Author and Bestower of life, can 
doubtless restore it also : but whether thou will please to 
restore it, or not, that thou only knows. 

O thou my voice inspire, 

Who touch'd Isaiah*s hallowed lips with fire. 

Accept these grateful tears : for thee they flow ; 
For thee that ever felt another's wo. 

Just to thy word, in ev'ry thought sincere; 

Who knew no wish but what the world might hear. 

The folloiving examples are adafited to the notes under 

Rule I. 

I. If the privileges to which he has an undoubted right, 
and he has long enjoyed, should now be wrested from him, 
would be flagrant injustice. 

These curiosities we have imported from China, and 
are similar to those which were some time ago brought 
from Africa. 




P|l|i^f?^^Pf9'l!P5i|^ ^^?f^!- '^ 



SYNTAX. 175 

Will martial flames for-ever fire thy mind, 
And never, never be to Heav'n resign*d ? 



. Two substantives, when they come together, and do 
t signify the same thing, the former must be in the ge- 
nitive case. 

Virtue, however it may be neglected for a time, men 
are so constituted as ultimately to acknowledge and re- 
spect genuine merit. 



SECTION II 



RULE II. 

XVhen two noU7is come together ^signifying different things^ 
theformerimplyingfiossession^TnustbeinthefiossessivecasCf 
•and gouerned by the latter. 

The preposition 0/ joined to a substantive, is frequently 
equivalent to the possessive case : as, " A Christian's 
hope,'* " The hope of a Christian." But it is only so, 
when the expression can be converted into the regular 
form of the possessive case. We can say, " The reward 
of virtue," and "Virtue's reward;'* but though it is pro- 
per to say, " A crown of gold," we cannot convert the 
-expression into the possessive case, and say, " Gold's 
crown.'* 

Substantives govern pronouns as well as nouns, in the 
possessive case: as, "Every tree is known hy its fruit;" 
" Goodness brings its reward ;" " That desk is mine.** 

The genitive its is often improperly used iovUis or it is : 
as, " Its my book ;" instead of, " It is my book." 

The pronoun his^ when detached from the noun to which 
it relates, is to be considered, not as a possessive adjective 
pronoun, but as the genitive case of the personal pronoun: 
as, " This composition is his.''* " Whose book is that ?" 
*' His.** If we use the noun itself, we should say," " This 
composition is John's." " Whose book is that ?" " Eli- 
za's." The position will be still more evident, when we 
consider that both the pronouns, in the following sentence, 
must have a similar construction : " Is iX her ov his honour 
that is tarnished?" <* It is not hersj but his,** 



176 SYNTAX. 

Sometimes a substantive in the genitive or possessive 
case stands alone, the latter one by which it is governed 
being understood: as, "I called at the bookseller's," that 
is, " at the bookseller's shop.** 

1. IF several nouns come together in the possessive case, 
the apostrophe with « is annexed to the last, and under- 
stood in the rest : as, " John and Eliza's books :" " This 
was my father, mother, and uncle's advice." But when 
any words intervene, perhaps on account of the increased 
pause, the sign of the possessive should be annexed to 
each: as, *' They are John's as well as Eliza's books;'* 
*' I had the physician's, the surgeon's, and the apotheca- 
ry's assistance." The following distinction, on this point, 
appears to be worthy of attention. When any subject or 
subjects are considered as the common property of two or 
more persons, the sign of the possessive case is affixed on- 
ly to the name of the last person: asj " This is, Henry, 
William, and Joseph's estate." But w^hen several sub- 
jects arc considered, as belonging separately to distinct 
individuals, the names of the individuals have the sign of 
the possessive case annexed to each of them : as, " These 
are Henry's, William's, and Joseph's estates." — It is, how- 
ever, better to say, " It was the adviee of my father, mo- 
ther, and uncle;" "I had the assistance of the physician, 
the surgeon, and the apothecary ;" '' This estate be- 
longs in common to Flenry, William, and Joseph." 

2. In poetry, the additional « is frequently omitted, but 
the apostrophe retained, in the same manner as in substan- 
tives of the plural number ending in s : as, " The wrath 
of Peleus' son." This seems not so allowable in prose; 
which the following erroneous examples will demonstrate: 
"Moses* minister;" " Phinehas' wife;" " Festus came 
into Felix* room." " These answers, were made to the 
"witness* questions." But in cases which would give too 
much of the hissing sound, or increase the difficulty of 
pronunciation, the omission takes place even in prose: as, 
'' For righteousness' sake ;" " For conscience* sake." 

3. Little explanatory circumstances are particularly 
awkward between a genitive case, and the word which 
usually follows it : as, '* She began to extol the farmer's, 
as she called him, excellent understanding." It ought to 
be, " the excellent understanding of the farmer, as she 
called him.*' — The word in the genitive case is frequently 
placed improperly : as, " This fact appears from Dr. 



SYNTAX. irr 

Pearson of Birmingham's experiments." It should be, 
" from the experiments of Dr. Pearson of Birmingham.*' 
4. When a sentence consists of terms signifying a 
nstme and an office, or of any expressions by which one 
part is descriptive or explanatory of the other, it may oc- 
casion some doubt to which of them the sign of the geni- 
tive case should be annexed : or whether it should be 
subjoined to them both. Thus, some would say, " I left 
the parcel at Smith's the bookseller;" others, " at Smith 
the bookseller's;" and perhaps others, " at Smith's the 
bookseller's." The first of these forms is most agreeable 
to the English idiom ; and if the addition consists in two or 
more words, the case seems to be less dubious: as, "I 
left the parcel at Smith's, the bookseller and stationer." 
The point will be still clearer, if we supply the ellipsis 
in these sentences, and give the equivalent phrases, at 
large : thus, "I left the parcel at the house of Smith the 
bookseller;" "I left it at Smith the house of the book- 
seller." " I left it at the house of Smith the house of the 
bookseller." By this process, it is evident, that only the 
first mode of expression is correct and proper. But as 
this subject requires a little further explanation, to make 
it intelligible to the learners, I shall add a few observations 
calculated to unfold its principles. 

A phrase in which the words are so connected and de- 
pendent, as to admit of no pause before the conclusion, 
necessarily requires the genitive sign at or near the end of 
the phrase : aSj " Whose prerogative is it ? It is the king 
of Great Britain's;" "That is the duke of Bridgwater's 
canal ;" '* The bishop of Landaff's excellent book ;" " The 
Lord mayor of London's authority;" " The captain of the 
Guard's house." 

o 

When words in apposition follov/ each other in quick 
succession, it seems also most agreeable to our idiom, to 
give the sign of the genitive a similar situation; especial- 
ly if the noun which governs the genitive be expressed: 
as, "The emperor Leopold's;" " Dionysius the ty- 
rant's ;" " For David my servanda sake ;" " Give me John 
the Bafitist^s head;" "Paul the a/205//<?'s advice." But 
when a pause is proper, and the governing noun not ex- 
pressed ; and when the latter part of the sentence is ex- 
tended; it appears to be requisite that the sign should be 
applied to the first genitive, and understood to the other: ^ 
as, " I reside at lord Stormont's, my old patron and bene- 
factor;" "Whose glory did he eamlate ? He emulated 



i7S SYNTAX. 

Csesar's, ihe greatest general of antiquity." In the follow- 
ing sentences, it would be very awkward to place the sign, 
either at the end of each of the clauses, or at the end of 
the latter one alone : as, " These psalms are David's, the 
king, priest, and prophet of the Jewish people;" "We 
staid a month at lord Lyttleton's, the ornament of his coun- 
try, and the friend of every virtue." The sign of the 
genitive case may very properly be understood at the 
end of these members, an ellipsis at the latter part of the 
sentences being a common construction in our language; 
as the learner will see by one or two examples : " They 
wished to submit, but he did not;" that is, >Mie did not 
wish to submit ;" " He said it was their concerny but not 
his;" that is, " no^/i/5 coTzcerw." ^^- 

If we annex the sign of the genitive to the end of the 
last clause only, we shall perceive that a resting place ts 
wanted, and that the' connecting circumstance is placed too 
remotely, to be either perspicuous or agreeal>le^;uas, 
** Whose glory did he emulate? He emulated Caesar, the 
greatest ^enev?d of antiquity's.'* " These psalms are Da- 
vid, the king, priest, ^and prophet of the Jew\shJieo/ile*s.'* 
It is much better to say, " This is Paul's advice, the Chris- 
tian hero, and great apostle of the Gentiles," than, " This 
is Paul the Christian hero, and great apostle of the Gen- 
tiles* advice." On the other hand, the application of the 
genitive sign to both or all of the nouns in apposition, 
would be generally harsh and displeasing, and perhaps in 
some cases incorrect: as, ''The emperor's Leopold's;" 
"King's George's;" "Charles's the second's;" "The 
parcel was left at Smith's, the bookseller's and stationer's." 
The rules which I have endeavoured to elucidate, will 
prevent the inconveniences of both these modes of ex- 
pression; and they appear to be simple, perspicuous, and 
consistent with the idiom of the language. 

5. The English genitive has often an unpleasant sound; 
so that we daily make more use of the participle of to 
express the same relation. There is something awkward 
in the following sentences, in which this method has not 
been taken. "The general in the army's name, publish- 
ed a declaration." " The commons' vote." " The Lord's 
house." " Unless he is very ignorant of the kingdom's 
condition." It were certainly better to say, " In the 
name of th« army;" "The votes of the commons;" 
" The house of lords ;" " The condition of the kingdom '' 



SYNTAX. no 

It is also rather hard to use two English genitives with 
the same substantive: as, "Whom he acquaimed with 
the pope's and the king's pleasure." " The pleasure 
of the pope and the king,'* would have been better. 

We sometimes meet with three substantives dependent 
on one another, and connected by the preposition of ap- 
plied to each of them; as, "The severity of the distress 
of the son of the king, touched the nation ;" but this mode 
of expression is not to be recommended. It would be 
better to say, " The severe distress oi the king's son, 
touched the nation." We have a striking instance of this 
laborious mode of expression, in the following sentence? 
" 0/some of the books 0/ each of these classes of litera- 
ture, a catalogue will be given at the end of the work." ' 

6. In some cases, we use both the genitive termination 
and the preposition of: as, " It is a discovery of Sir Isaac 
Newton's." Sometimes indeed, unless we throw the sen- 
tence into another form, this method is absolutely neces- 
sary, in order to disthiguish the sense, and to give the idea 
of property, strictly so called, which is the most important 
of the relations expressed by the genitive case: for the 
expressions, "This picture of my friend," and. "This 
picture of my friend's," suggest very difTereint ideas. The 
latter only is that of property in the strictest sense. The 
idea would, doubtless, be conveyed in a better manner, by 
saying, "This picture belongs to my friend." 

When this double genitive, as some grammarians term 
it, is not necessary to distinguish the sense, and especial- 
ly in a grave style, it is generally omitted. Except to 
prevent ambiguity, it seems allowable only in cases which 
suppose the existence of a plurality of subjects of the 
same kind. In the expression?, " A subject of the em- 
peror's;" *' A sentiment of my brother's'," more than 
one subject and one sentiment, are supposed to belong to 
the possessor. But when this plurality is neither inti- 
mated, nor necessarily supposed, the double genitive, ex- 
cept as before mentioned, should not be used : as, " This 
house of the governor is very commodious;" "The 
crown oi the king was stolen;" That privilege of the 
scholar was never abused." But after all that can be 
said for this double genitive, as it is termed, some gram- 
marians think, that it would be better to j^void the use of 
it, altogether, and to give the sentiment another form of 
expression. 



180 SYNTAX. 

7. When an entire clause of a sentence, beginning with 
a participle of the present tense, is used as one name, 
or to express one idea or circumstance, the noun on which 
it depends may be put in the genitive case; thus instead 
of saying, *' What is the reason of this person dismissing 
his servant so hastily ?'* that is, " What is the reason of 
this person, in dismissing his servant so hastily ?" we 
may say, and perhaps ought to say, " What is the reason 
of this person's dismissing of his servant so hastily?** 
Just as we say, ** What is the reason of this person's hasty 
dismission of his servact ?" So also, we say, " I remem- 
ber it being reckoned a great exploit ;** or more properly, 
** I remember it's being reckoned," kc. The following 
sentence is correct and proper : " Much will depend on 
the /lu/iirs comfiosing^ but more on his rca^/m^ frequent- 
ly." It would not be accurate to say, " Much will de- 
pend on the jiufiil comfiosing^^^ 8cc. We also properly 
say; "This will be the effect of the fiufiiV s c o myosin gSve- 
quently ;" instead of, " Of the fiufiilco?nposmg frequently." 
The participle, in such constructions, does the offijjpe af 
a substantive; and it should therefore have a com-espond- 
ent regimen. 

Now correct Imd parse the following 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

My ancestors virtue is not mine. 

His brothers offence will not condemn him. 

I will not destroy the city for ten sake. 

Nevertheless, Asa his heart was perfect with the Lord. 

A mothers tenderness and a fathers care, are natures 
gift's for mans advantage. 

A mans manner's frequently influence his fortune. 

Wisdoms precepts form the good mans interest and 
happiness. 

The follo'iving examples are adapted to the notes and obser- 
vations under Rule II. 

1. It was the men's, women's, and children's lot, to 
suffer great calamities. 

Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation, was that of 
fishermen. 

This measure gained the king, as well as the people's 
approbation. 

Not only the council's and attorney's, but the judge's 
opinion also, favoured his cause. 



SYNTAX. - 18^ 

2. And he cast himself down at Jesus feet. 
Moses rod was turned into a serpent. 

For Herodias sake, his brother Philips wife. 

If ye suffer for righteousness's sake, happy are ye. 

Ye should be subject for conscience's sake. 

3. They very justly condemned the prodigal's, as he 
was called, senseless and extravagant conduct. 

They implicitly obeyed the protector's, as they called 
him, imperious mandates. 

4. I bought the knives at Johnson's, the cutler's. 

The silk was purchased at Brown's, the mercer's and 
haberdasher's. 

Lord Feversham the general's tent. 

This palace had been the grand sultan's Mahomet's. 

I will not for David's thy father's sake. 

He took refuge at the governor, the king's representa- 
tive's. .,"'■■ > 

Whose works are -these ? They are Gicepo, the most 
eloquent of men's. 

5. The world's government is not left to chance. 
She married my son's wife's brother. 

This is my wife's brother's partner's house. 

It was necessary to have both the physician's and the 
surgeon's advice, ..^ 

The extent of the prerogative of the king of England 
is sufficiently ascertained. 

6. This picture of the king's does not much resemble 
him. 

These pictures of the king were sent to him from Italy. 
This estate of the corporation's is much encumbered. 
This is the eldest son of the king of England's. 

7 . What can be the cause of the parliament neglecting 
30 important a busincbs ? 

Much depends on this rule being observed. 

The time of William making the experiment at length 
arrived. 

It is very probable that this assem.bly was called to clear 
some dcwbt which the king hadj about the lawfulness of 
the Holl|nders their throwing oft' the monarchy of Spain, 

q 



182 SYNTAX. 

and their withdrawing entirely their allegiance to that 
crown. 

If we alter the situation of any of the words, we shall 
presently be sensible of the melody suffering. 

Such will ever be the eflPect of youth associating with 
vicious companions. 



SECTION in. 



RULE in. 

Transitive verbs govern the objective case. 

In English, the nominative case denoting the subject, 
usually goes before the verb; and the objective case, de- 
noting the object, follows the verb transitive ; and it is the 
order that determines the case in nouns: as, "Alexander 
conquered the Persians.'* But the pronoun having a pro- 
per form for each of those cases, is sometimes, when it is 
in the objective case, placed before the verb; and, when 
it is in the nominative case, follows the object and verb : 
as, " Whom ye ignorantly worship, /mn declare I unto 
you." 

This position of the pronoun sometimes occasions its 
proper case and government to be neglected: as in the 
following instances : " Who should! esteem more than the 
wise and good?" " By the character of those who you 
choose for. your friends, your ownrs likely to be formed." 
" Those are the persons who he thought true to his inte- 
rest:" " Who should I see the other day but my oTd 
friend r" " Whosoever the court favours." In all these 
places it ought to be tvhom^ the relative being governed 
in the objective case by the verbs " esteem, choose, 
thought," Sec. " He, wiio under all proper circuvnstances, 
has the boldness to speak truth, choose for thyfi'iend;" 
It should be "/z/w who," &C. 

Verbs neuter do not act upon, or govern, nouns and 
pronouns. " He sleeps; they muse," &:c. are not transi- 
tive. They are therefore, not followed by an objective 
case, specifying the object of an action. But when this 



SYNTAX. 183 

caseor aaobject of action, comes after such verbs, though 
it may carry the appearance of being governed by them, 
it is generally affected by a preposition or some other 
word understood : as, " He resided many years [that is, 
for or during many years] in that street ;" " He rode se- 
veral miles [that is, for or through the space of several 
miles] on that day ;" " He lay an hour [that is, during ^n 
hour] in great torture." In the phrases, "To dream a 
dream," " To live a virtuous life," " To run a race," 
*' To walk the horse," " To dance the child," the verbs 
certainly assume a transitive form, and may not, in' these 
cases, be improperly denominated transitive verbs. 

Part of a sentence, as well as a noun or pronoun, may 
be said to be in the objective case, or to be put objective- 
ly, governed by the active verh^ as, "We sometimes see 
virtue in distress : but we sliouid consider horu great will be 
her ulti7nate reward," Sentences or phrases under these 
circumstances may be termed objective sentences ov phrases. 

1. Some writers, however, use certain neuter and intran- 
sitive verbs as if they wer<j transitive, putting after them the 
objective case, agreeably to the French construction of re- 
ciprocar verbs j but this custom is so foreign to the idiom of 
the English tongue, that it ought not to be adopted orimita- 
ted. The following are some instances of this practice. 
'•^Repenting him of his design." ''The king soon found 
reason to repent him of his provoking such dangerous ene- 
mies." " The popular lords did not fail to enlarge them- 
selves on the subject." "The nearer his successes afi- 
firoached him to the throne." "Go Jiet thee away into 
the land of Judah." " I think it by no means a fit and de- 
cent thing iovie charities," 8cc. " They have spent their 
whole time and pains, to agree the sacred with the pro- 
fane chronology." 

2. Transitive verbs are sometimes as improperly made 
intransitive : as, " I mw^i premise with three circumstan- 
ces." ''Those that think to ingratiate with him.. by ca- 
lumniating me." They should be, "premise three cir- 
cumstances;" "ingratiate themselves with him." 

3. The neuter and intransitive verb is varied like the 
transitive ; but having in some degree the nature of the 
passive, it admits, in many instances, of the passive form, 
retaining still the neuter signification, chiefly in such verbs 
as signify some sort of motion, or change of place or con- 
dition : as, " 1 am come ; I was gone ; I am grown ; I was 
fallen." The following examples, however, appear to be 



iS4 SYNTAX. 

erroneous, in giving- the intransitive verbs a passive form, 
instead of a transitive one. " The rule of our holy reli- 
gion, from which we are infinitely swerved:' " The whole 
obligation of that law and covenant was also ceased:' 
" Whose number ivas now amounted to three hundred." 
" This mareschal, upon some discontent, was entered into 
a conspiracy against his master." " At the end of a cam- 
paign, when half the men are deserted or killed." They 
should be, " have swerved, had ceased," &c. 

4. Let governs the objective case : *' Let hitn beware ;" 
<^Let us judge candidly;" "Let them not presume j" 
\' Let George study his lessor}." 

Now correct and parse the following 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

They who opulence has made proud, and w^o luxury 
has corrupted, cannot relish the simple pleasures of na- 
ture. 

You have reason to dread his wrath, which one 4ay Avyi 
destroy ye both. ' ^ f . 

Who have I reason to lore so much as this friend of my 
youth. 

Ye, who were dead, hath he quickened. 

Who did tiiey entertain so freely. 

The man who he raised from obscurity, is dead. 

Ye. only h^ve I known of all the families of the earth. 

He and they we know, but who are you ? 

She that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply. 

Who did they send to him on so important an errand ? 

That is the friend who you must receive cordially, and 
who you cannot esteem too highly. 

He invited my brother and I to see and examine his li- 
brary. 

He who comiriit-ted the offence, you should correct, not 
I who a|ri innocent. 

We sliould fear and obey the Author of our being, even 
He ^v!:o has power to reward or pirnish us for ever. 

They v^^ho he had most injured, he had the greatest 
reason to love. 

The examples which follow^ arc suited to the notes and ob- 
servations W7:r/e?' Rule III. 
1. Though he now takes pleasure in them, he will one 
day repent him of indulgences so unwarrantable; 




SYNTAX. 185 

The nearer his virtues approached him to the great ex- 
ample before him, the humbler he grew. 

It will be very difficult to agree his conduct with the 
principles he professes. 

2. To ingratiate Avith some, by traducing others, marks 
a base and despicable mind. 

I shall premise with two or three general observations. 

3. If such maxims, and such practices prevail, what has 
become of decency and virtue ? 

I have come according to the time proposed ; but I have 
fallen upon an evil hour. 

The mighty rivals are now at length agreed. 

The influence of his corrupt example was then entirely 
ceased. 

He was entered into the connexion, before the conse- 
quences were considered. 

4. Whatever others do, let thou and I act wisely. 
Let thena and we unite to oppose this growing evil. 



SECTION lY. 



RULE IV. 

,_lhe article refers to a noun or fironou?ij exfiressed or 
understood^ to limit its signification- 

It is the nature of both the articles to determine or li- 
mit the thing spoken of. A determines it to be one single 
thing of the kind, leaving it still uncertain which : the de- 
termines which it is, or of many, which they are. 

The following passage will serve as an example of the 
different uses of « and the, and of the force of the substan- 
tive without any article. '''Man was made for society, and 
ought to extend his good will to all men: But a yna'n will 
natuTally entertain a more particular kindness for the men^ 
with whom he has the most frequent intercourse j and en- 

« 2 - « ' 



186 SYNTAX, 

ters into a still closer union with the man whose temper 
and disposition suit best with his own.*' 

There is in some instances, a peculiar delicacy in the ap- 
plication or omission of the indefinite article. This will 
be seen in the following instances. We commonly say ; 
" I do not intend to turn critic on this occasion;" not 
" turn a critic." On the other hand, we properly add the 
article in this phrase; " I do not intend to become a critic 
in this business;** not, '' to become critic." It is correct 
to say, with the article, " He is in a great hurry ;" but not, 
"in great hurry." And yet, in this expression, '^ He is in 
great haste," the ariicle should be omitted : it would be 
improper to say, "He is in a great haste." A nice dis- 
cernment, and accurate attention to the best usage, are 
necessary to direct us, on these occasions. 

As the articles are sometimes misapplied, it may be of 
some use to exhibit a few instances : "And! persecuted 
this way unto the death." The apostle does not mean any 
particular sort of death, but death in general : the definite 
article therefore is improperly used : it; ought to be " unto 
death,'* without any article. 

" When he, the Spirit of Truth, is come, he will guide 
you into all truth;'* that is, according to this translation, 
"into ail truth whatsoever, into truth of- all kinds;" very 
different from the meaning of the evangelist, and from the 
original, " into aVl the truth ;" that is, '' into all evangeli- 
cal truth, all truth necessary for you to know." 

" Who breaks a butterfly upon a wheel ?" it ought to be 
" the wheel," used as an instrument for the particular pur- 
pose of torturing animals. "The Almighty hath given 
reason to a man to be a light unto him :" it should rather 
be, " to 7wan," in general. "This day is salvation come 
to this house, forasmuch as he is also the son of Abraham :** 
it ought to be, " a son of Abraham." 

Th.ese remarks may serve to show the great importance 
of the proper use of the article, and the excellence of the 
English language in this respect; which, by means of its 
two articles, does most precisely determine the extent of 
signification of common names. 

1. A nice distinction of the sense is sometimes made by 
the use or omiiision of the article a. If I say, "He be- 
haved with a little reverence;" my meaning is positive. 
If I say, " He behaved with little reverence;" my mean- 
ing is negative. And these two are by no means the same, 
or to be used in the same cases. By the former, I ra- 



SYxMTAX. 187 

iher praise a person; by the latter, I dispraise him. For 
the sake of this distinction, which is a very useful one, we 
may better bear the seeming impropriety of the article a 
before n(^ns of number. When I say, *' There were few 
men with him ;*' I speak diminutively, and mean to re-^ 
present them as inconsiderable; whereas, when I say, 
'' There were a few men with him ;" I evidently intend 
to make the most of them. 

2. In general, it may be sufficient to prefix the article 
to the former of two words in the same construction; 
though the French never fail to repeat it in this case. 
" There were many hours, both of the night and day, 
which he could spend, without suspicion, in solitary 
thought." It might have been" of Me night and o/Meday." 
And, for the sake of emphasis, we often repeat the article 
in a series of epithets. "He hoped that this title would 
secure him azi ample and an independent authority." 

3. In common conversation, and in familiar style, we 
frequently omit the articles, which might be inserted with 
propriety, in writing, especially in a grave style. '' At 
worst, time might be gained by this expedient." *' At the 
worst," would have been better in this place. " Give me 
here John Baptist's head." There would have been more 
dignity in saying, "John Me Baptist's head;" or, " The 
head of Jolin Me Baptist." 

. -The article Me has sometimes a different effect, in dis- 
tinguishing a person by an epithet; " In the history of 
Henry the fourth, by Father Daniel, we are surprised at 
not finding him the great man." " I own I am often. sur- 
prised "that he should have treated so coldly, a man so 
iTtuch Me gentleman." 

This article is often elegantly put, after the manner of 
the French, for the possessive adjective pronoun : as, 
" He looks him full in Me face ;" that is, " in /lis face." 
" In his presence they were to strike 'Me forehead on the 
ground;" ihat is^^^ their foreheads." 

We sometimes, according to the French manner, repeat 
the same article, when the adjective, on account of any 
clause depending upon it, is put after The substantive. "" Of 
all the considerable governments among the Alps, a com- 
monwealth is a constitution Me most adapted of any to the 
poverty of those countries." "With s<ich a specious title 
as that of blood, which with the -multitude is always a 
claim, Me strongest, and ^A^- most easily comprehended." 



188 SYNTAX. 

"They are not the men in the nation the most difficult to 
be replaced." 

The definite article is likewise used to distino^uish be- 
tween things, which are individually different, out have 
one generic name, and things which are, in trjjth, one and 
the same, but are characterized by several qualities. If 
we say, "'The ecclesiastical and secular powers concur- 
red in this measure,'* the expression is ambiguous, as far 
as language can render it such. The reader's knowledge, 
as Dr. Campbell observes, may prevent his mistaking it ; 
but if such modes of expression be admitted, where the 
sense is clear, they may inadvertently be imitated, in cases 
where the meaning would be obscure, if not -entirely mis- 
understood. The error might have been avoided, either 
by repeating the substantive, or by subjoining the substan- 
tive to the fir«t adjective, and prefixing the article to both 
adjectives; or by placing the substantive after both ad- 
jectives, the ardcle being prefixed in the same manner ; as, 
" The ecclesiastical powers, and the secular powers;" or 
better, " The ecclesiastical pov/ers, and the secular;" or, 
*' The ecclesiastical, and the secular powers." The re- 
petiiion of .the article shows, that the second adjective is 
not an additional epithet to the same subject, but belongs 
to a subject totally different, though expressed by the same 
generic name. " The lords spiritual and temporal," is a 
phraseology objectionable on the saYne principle, though 
now so long sanctioned by usage, that we scarcely dare 
question its propriety. The subjects are different, though 
they have but one generic name. The phrase should, 
therefore, have been, " The spiritual and the temporal 
lords." — On the contrary, when two or more adjectives 
belong, as epithets, to one and the same thing, the other 
arrangement is to be preferred: as, " The High and mighty 
states." ' Here bolii epithets belong to one subject. 
"The states high and mighty," would convey the same 
idea. 

The indefinite tarticle has, sometimes, the meaning of 
every ov each : as, "They cOrst five shillings a dozen;" 
that is, " every dozen." 

" A man he was to all the country dear, 

" And passing rich with forty pounds a year." 

Goldsmith, 
that is, " every year." 



SYNTAX, 189 

There is a particular use of the indefinite article, which 
deserves attention, as ambiguity nnay, by this means, be, 
in some cases, avoided. Thus, if v^^e say, " He is a bet- 
ter soldier than scholar," the article is suppressed before 
the second term, and the expression is equivalent to, 
" He is more warlike than learned;" or, "He possesses 
the qualities, which form the soldier, in greater degree 
than those, which constitute the scholar." If we say, 
" He would make a better soldier than a scholar," the 
article is prefixed to the second term, and the meaning is, 
" He would make a better soldier than a scholar would 
make;" that is, "He has more of the constituent quali- 
ties of a soldier, than are to be found in any literary man.'* 
These two phraseologies are frequently confounded, which 
seldom fails to produce uncertainty of meaning. In the 
former case, the subject, aS possessing different qualities 
in various degrees, is compared with itself ; in the latter, it 
is compared with something else. -^ 

You are now prepared to correct and parse the fol- 
lowing- 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

The fire, the air, the earth, and the watef.^ are four elc" 
ments of the philosophers. 

Reason was given to a riian to cohtrol his passions. 

We have within us an intelligent principle, distinct from 
body and from matter. 

A man is the noblest work of creation. 

Wisest and best men sometimes commit errors. 

Beware of drunkenness ; it impairs understanding; 
wastes an estate; destroys a reputation; consumes the 
body ; and renders the inan of the bright'dst parts the cdm- 
mon jest of the meanest clown. ' " 

He is a miuch better Avriter than a reader. 

The king has conferred on him the title of a duke. 

There are some evils of life, which equally affect prince 
and people. 

We must act our part with a constancy, though reward 
of our constancy be distant. 

We are placed here under a trial of our virtue. 

The virtues like his are not easily acquired. Such 
qualities honour the'iiature of a man. 

Purity has its seat in the heart ; but extends its influence 
over so much of outward conduct, as to form the great 
and material part of a character. 



190 SYNTAX. 

The profligate man is seldoin or never found to be the 
good husband, the good father, or ti.e benehcent neigh- 
bour. 

True charity is not the meteor, which occasionally 
glares; but ihe luminary, whicli in iis orderly and regular 
course, dispenses benignant nifluence. 

The folloimng sentences exemplify the notes and observa- 
tions under Rule IV. 

1. He has been much censured for conducting himself 
•^vith a little attention to his business. 

So bold a breach of order, called for little severity in 
pui)4shing the offender. 

His error was accompanieci with so little contrition and 
candid acknowledgment, that he found a few persons to 
intercede for him. 

There were so many mitigating circumstances attending 
his misconduct, particularly that of his open confession, 
that he found few friends -Who were disposed to interest 
themselv^ip, his favour. 

As his miiibriunes were the fruit of his own obstinacy, 
a few persons pitied hira. 

2. The fear of shame, and desire of approbation, pre- 
vent many bad actions. 

In this business he was influenced by a just and gene- 
rous principle. 

He was fired with a desire of doing something, though 
he knew not yet, with distinctness, either end or means. 

3. At worst, I could but incur a gentle reprimand. 

At best his gift was a poor offering, when we consider 
his estate. 



SECTION V. 



RULE V. 

JRvery adjective belongs to some 7ioun or fironounj ex- 
pressed or understood. 



SYNTAX. 191 

1. Adjectives are sometimes improperly applied as ad- 
verbs: as,» " Indifferent honest; excellent well; miser- 
able poor," instead of " Indifferently honest; excellently 
-well ; miserably poor.'* *' He behaved himself conform- 
able to that great example ;" " conformably.^^ " Endea- 
vour lo live hereafter suitable to persons in your station ;"' 
" suiiably.^* '* I can never think so very mean of him;'* 
" meanly y He describes this river agreeable to the com- 
mon reading;" '^^ agreeably.''^ "Agreeable to; my pro- 
mise, I now write;" " agreeably ^ " Thy exceeding great 
reward." When united to an adjective, or adverb not 
ending in /z/, the word exceeding has ly added to it; as, 
" exceedingly dreadful, exceedingly great ;" " exceed- 
ingly well, exceedingly more active:" but when it is join- 
ed to an adverb or adjective, having that termination, the 
ly is omitted : as, " Some men think exceeding clearly, and 
reason exceeding forcibly :" '' She appeared on this occa- 
sion, exceeding lovely :" " He acted in this business bold- 
er than was expected:" "They behaved \hit noblest^ 
because they were disinterested." They ^^hould have 
been, '"'■more boldly; most nobly.''* — The adjective pro- 
noun such is often misapplied: as, " He was such an ex- 
travagant young man, that he spent his whole patrimony 
in a few years:" it should be, "50 extravagant a young 
man.''* " I n€yer before saw such large trees:" "saw 
trees so latge.''^ When we refer to the species or nature 
ofa thing, the word «wcA is properly applied : as " Such 
a temper is seldom found:" but when degree is signi- 
fied, w« use the word so: as, "So bad a temper is seldom 
found." 

Adverbs are likewise improperly us^d as adjectives : 
as, "The tutor addressed him in terms'rather warm, but 
suitably to his offence;" '•'• suitable.'* " They were seen 
wandering about solitarily and distressed ;" "so/zYarz/.'* 
" He lived in a manner agreeably to the dictates' of reason 
and religion ;" ^''agreeable.'" "The study of syntax 
sRtvuld be previously to that of punctuation;'* ''" fire-vi- 
ous."* 



* Young persons who study gTammar, find it difficult to decide, in particular con* 
structions, whether an adjective, or an adverb, ought to be used. A few obstrvafions 
on this point, iia> serve to inforn< their judgnunt, and direct their determination — < 
They should carefully attend to the definitions of the adjective and thf adverb; ,nd 
COilsidfr whether, .n the f-Mse in qtie«tion, quality or manner, h indicated. In the 

: form r case, a. » adjective is proper; in the latter, an adverb. A number of examples 

- will illHstrate this direction, and prove useful on other occasions. 



192 SYNTAX. 

2. Double eomparatives and superlatives should be 
avoided : such as, " A worser conduct;'* " On lesser 
hopes ;" " A more serener temper;" " The most strait- 
est sect;" "A more superior work." They should be, 
"worse conduct;** "less hopes;'* '« a more serene 
temper;" " the straitest sect ;" " a superior work." 

3. Adjectives, that have in themselves a superlative 
signification, do not properly admit of the superlative or 
comparative form superadded : such as, " Chief, extreme, 
perfect, right, universal, supreme," &c. ; which are some- 
times improperly written, " Chiefest, extremest, perfect- 
est, Tightest, most universal, most supreme," &c. The 
following expressions^ are therefore improper. " He 
sometimes claims admission to the chiefest offices;" 
"The quarrel became so u?iiver sal and national;" "A 
method of attaining the righiest and greatest happiness.** 
The phrases, so perfect, so right, so extreme, so univer- 
sal. Sec. are incorrect; because they imply that one thing 
is less perfect, less extreme, &c. than another, Avhich is 
not possible. 

She looks cold— She looks coldly on him. 
He feels warm— He feels warr.ilj' ihe insult offered to him. 
He became sincere and viituous— H*.- b';ca)me Mucercly virtuous- 
She lives free from cart*-Ke lives freely at another's expetise. 
Harriet always appears neat— She dresses neatly. 

Charles has grown great by his wisdom— He lias^rown greatly in reputation. 
They jjow appear happy— They now appear happily in earnest. 
The statement seems exact— Tlie stattmfnt seems exactly in i»oint. 



The verb to be, in all its moods and tenses, generally requires the woi-d immediately 
connected with it to be an adjective, not au arlverb ; and consequently, when this verb 
can be subsfitured for any other, without varyiiig the stuse or the construction, tba{ 
other veib mu/t also be coiautted with an adjective. The following sentences elufei- 
daie these observations : " This is agreeable to our interest ; That behaviour was not 

- - is 

suitable to his. station; Rules should be conforniabhi to sense;" "The rose smells 

'is 'is 

sweet; How sweet the Kay smells] How delighiful the eounti-y appears! How plea- 
are are " was 
sant the fields look ! The clouds look dark; How black the sky looked! The apple 

is were is 

tastes sour. How hitter the plums tasted! He feels happy." In all these sentences, 
v/e can- with perfect propriety, substitute socr.e tenses of the verb to be, for the other 
verbs But in the following sentences we cannot do this! "The dog siaells disagree- 
ably ; George feels esqt.isiteiy; How pleasantly she looks at us!" 

The directions contained in this note are r-ffertd as useful, not as complete and un. 
exceptionable. Anomalies in language every where encounter us; but we must not 
reject rules, because they are attended with exceptions. 




SYNTAX. 193 

4. Inaccuracies are often found in the way in which 
Ihe degrees of comparison are applied and construed. 
The following are examples of wrong construction in 
this respect : " This noble nation, hath of all others, ad- 
mitted fewer corruptions." The word /ewer is here con- 

- strued precisely as if it were the superlative. It should 
I be, " This noble nation hath admitted fewer corruptions 
I than any other." We commonly say, " This is the 
' weaker of the two;" or, "The weakest of the two;" 
but the former is the regular mode of expression, because 
there are only two things compared. " The vice of 
covetousness is what enters deepest into the soul of any 
other." " He celebrates the church of England as the 
most perfect of all others." Both these modes of ex- 
pression are faulty : we should not say, " The best of 
any man," or, " The best of any other man," for " the 
best of men." The sentences may be corrected by sub- 
stituting the comparative in the room of the superlative. 
"The vice, Sec. is what enters deeper into the soul than 
any other." " He celebrates. Sec. as more perfect, or 
less imperfect, than any other." It is also possible to re^ 
tain the superlative, and render the expression grammati- 
cal, " Covetousness, of all vices, enters the deepest into 
the soul." " He celebrates, &c. as the most perfect of 
all churches." These sentences contain other errors, 
/against which it is proper to caution the learner. The 
words deefier and deepest^ being intended for adverbs, 
should have been wore deefily^ most dee jily. The phrases 
more fierfect, 2indmost/2er/ect,2Lre improper; because per- 
fection admits of no degrees of comparison. We may say 
nearer or weares? to perfection, or more or less imperfect. 

5. In some cases, adjectives should liot be- separated 
from their substances, even by w^ords which modify 
their meaning, and make but one sense with them ; as, 
"A large enough number surely." It should be, a 
" fiumber large enough." " The lower sort of people 
are good enough judges of one not very distant from 
them." 

The adjective is usually placed before its substantive : 
as, " A generous man ;" '* How amiable a woman !" The 
instances in which it comes after the substantive, are the 
following : 

1st, When something depends upon the adjective ; and 
, when it gives a better sound, especially in poetry : as, 

R 



i^4 SYNTAX. 

" A man generous to his enemies;" ^^ Feed me ^vith food 
convenient for me ;'* " A tree three feet thick;'* " A body 
of troops fifty thousand strong;'' " The torrent tumbling 
through rocks abru/it.*' 

2d, When the adjective is emphatical: as, " Alexander 
the Great;'* "Lewis the Bold;'* "Goodness injinite;" 
*' Wisdom unsearchable.*' 

3d, When several adjectives belong- to one substantive : 
as, "A man just, wise, and charitable;" " A woman mo- 
dest, sensible, and virtuous." 

4th, When the adjective is preceded by an adverb : as, 
"A boy regularly studious;" "A girl unaffectedly mo- 
dest." 

5th, When the verb to be^ in any of its variations, comes 
between a substantive and an adjective, the adjective may 
frequently either precede or follow it : as, " The man is 
Jiappy;" or, " happy is the man who makes virtue his 
choice :" " The interview was delightful; or, " delightful 
■was the interview." 

6th, When the adjective expresses some circumstance 
of a substantive placed after an active verb : as, " Vanity 
often renders its ^o%%t%^Q\' despicable** In an exclama- 
tory sentence, the adjective generally precedes the sub- 
stantive; as, " How despicable does vanity often render its 
possessor!" 

There is sometimes great beauty, as well as force, in 
placing the adjective before the verb, and the substantive 
immediately after it : as, " Great is the Lord! just and 
true are thy w^ays, thou King of saints !" 

Sometimes the word all is emphatically put after a num- 
ber of particulars comprehended under it. " Ambition, 
interest, honour, all concurred." Sometimes a substan- 
tive, which likewise comprehends the preceding particu- 
lars, is used in conjunction with this adjective pronoun : 
as, " Royalists, republicans, churchmen, "sectaries, cour- 
tiers, patriots, all parties^ concur in the illusion." 

An adjective pronoun, in the plural number, will some- 
times properly associate with a singular noun : as, " Our 
desire, your intention, their resignation." This associa- 
tion applies rather to things of an intellectual nature, than 
to those which are corporeal. It forms an exception to 
the general rijle. 

A substantive with its adjective is reckoned as one com- 
pounded word; whence they often take another adjective. 



SYNTAX. 195 

and sometimes a third, and so on: as, " An old man; a 
good old man ; a very learned, judicious, good old man." 

Though the adjective always relates to a substantive, it 
is, in many instances, put as if it were absolute; especial- 
ly where the noun has been mentioned before, or is easily 
understood, though not expressed: "I often survey the 
green fields, as I am very fond of green;''* " The wisq, 
the virtuous, the honoured, famed, and great,'* that is, 
"persons;" "The twelve," that is, "apostles;" "Have 
compassion on the /zoor; be feet to the lame, and eyes to 
the blind. 

Substantives are often used as adjectives. In this case, 
the word so used is sometimes unconnected with the sub- 
stantive to which it relates; sometimes connected with it 
by a hyphen; and sometimes joined to it, so as to make 
the two words coalesce. The total separation is proper, 
when either of the two words is long, or when they can- 
not be fluently pronounced as one word : as, " an adjective 
pronoun, a silver watch, a stone cistern :" the hyphen is 
used, when both the words are short, and are readily pro- 
nounced as a single word : as, " coal-mine, corn-mill, fruit- 
tree ;" the words coalesce, when they are readily pro- 
nounced together; have a long established association ; 
and are in frequent use; as, " honeycomb, gingerbread, 
inkhorn, Yorkshire." - 

Sometimes the adjective becomes a substantive, and has 
another adjective joined to it: as, "The chief good;** 
" The vast im.mense of space." 

Some adjectives of number are more easily cortverted 
into substantives, than others. Thus we more readily 
say, "A million of men," than " a thousand of men." 
On the other hand, it will hardly be allowable to say, " A 
million men," whereas, " a thousand men," is quite fami- 
liar. Yet in the plural number, a different construction 
seems to be required. We say, "some hundreds," or 
" thousands," as well as "millions of men." Perhaps, on 
this account, the words millions, hundredsy and thousands, 
wilt be said to be substantives. 

AVhen an adjective has a preposition before.it, and the 
substantive is understood, the words assume the nature of 
an adverb, and may be considered as an adverbial phrase; 
as " In general, in particular, in common," &c. ; that is, 
" Generally, particularly, commonly." 

JEnoiv was formerly used as the plural of enoug/i: hut 
it is now obsolete. 



196 SYNTAX. 

Now correct and parse the following 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

\. She reads proper, writes very neat, and composes 
accurate. 

He was extreme prodigal, and his property is now near 
exhausted. 

They generally succeeded; for they lived conformable 
to the rules of prudence. 

We may reason very clear, and exceeding strong, with- 
out knowing that there is such a thing as a syllogism. 

He had many virtues, and was exceeding beloved. 

The amputation was exceeding well performed, and 
saved the patient's life. 

He came agreeable to his promise, and conducted him- 
self suitable to the occasion. 

He speaks very fluent, reads excellent, but does not 
think very coherent. 

He behaved himself submissive, and was exceeding 
careful not to give offence. 

They rejected the advice, and conducted themselves 
exceedingly indiscreetly. 

He is a person of great abilities, and exceeding upright i 
and is like to be a very useful member of the community. 

The conspiracy was the easier discovered, from its be- 
ing known to many. 

Not being fully acquainted with the subject, he could 
affirm no stronger than he did. 

He was so deeply impressed with the subject, that few 
could speak nobler upon it. 

We may credit his testimony, for he says express, -that 
he saw the transaction. 

Use a little wine for thy stomach's sake, and thine often 
infirmities. 

From these favourable beginnings, we may hope for a 
soon and prosperous issue. 

He addressed several exhortations to them suitably to 
their circumstances. 

Conformably to their vehemence of thought, was their 
vehemence of gesture. 

We should implant in the minds of youth, such seeds 
and principles of piety and virtue, as are likely to take the 
soonest and deepest root. 



SYNTAX. 197 

Such an amiable disposition will secure universal re- 
gard. 

Such distinguished virtues seldom occur. 

2. 'Tis more easier to build two chimneys than to main- 
tain one. 

The tongue is like a race-horse ; which runs the faster 
the lesser weight it carries. 

The pleasures of the understanding are more prefera- 
ble than those of the imagination, or of sense. 

The nightingale sings : hers is the most sweetest voice 
in the grove. 

The Most Highest hath created us for his glory, and 
our own happiness. 

The Supreme Being is the most wisest, and most pow- 
erfullest, and the most best of beings. 

3. Virtue confers the supremest dignity on man ; and 
should be his chiefest desire. 

His assertion was more true than that of his opponent; 
nay, the words of the latter were most untrue. 

His work is perfect; his brother's more perfect; and 
his father's the most perfect of all.. 

He gave the fullest und the most sincere proof of the 
truest friendship. 

3. A talent of this kind would, perhaps, prove the like- 
liest of any other to succeed. 

He is the strongest of the two, but not the wisest. 
He spoke with so much propriety, that I understood 
him the best of all others, who spoke on the subject. 
Eve was the fairest of all her daughters. 

4. He spoke in a distinct enough manner to be heard 
by the whole assembly. - 

Thomas is equipped with a new pair of shoes, and a 
new pair of gloves : he is the servant of an old rich man. 

The two first in the row are cherry-trees, the two 
others are pear trees. 

R- 2 



198 SYNTAX 



SECTION VI 



RULE VI. 

The fiarticijile ending in ing, ivhefi not connected with 
the auxiliary -verb to be, refers to some noun or pronoun^ 
denoting the subject or actor. 

In Conversation VII. I made all the remarks on this 
rule, that can be of any benefit to you in parsing or wri- 
ting the participle in this connexion. 

RULE VII. 

Particifiles of transitive verbs govern the objectivt 
case. 

1. The present participle, with the definite article Md- 
before it, becomes a substantive, and must have the pre- 
position q/* after it: as, "These are the rules of gram- 
mar, by the observing of which, you may avoid mistakes.'* 
It would not be proper to say, '^ by the observing which ;' 
nor, " by observing of which ;" but the phrase, without 
either article or preposition, wouM be right; as, *' by 
observing which." The article e or a??, has the same 
effect: as, " This was a betraying of the trust reposed in 
him.'" 

This rule arises from the nature dnd idiom of our lan- 
guage, and from as plain a principle as any on which it is 
founded ; namely, that a word which has the article before 
it, and the possessive preposition of ofter it, must be a 
noun: and, if a noun, it ought to follow the construction 
of a noun, and not to have the regimen of a verb. It is 
the participial termination of this sort of words that is apt 
to deceive us, and make us treat them as if they were of 
an amphibious species, partly nouns and partly verbs. 

The following are a few examples of the violation of 
this rule. "He was sent to prepare the way by preach- 
ing of repentance ;" it ought to be, " by the preaching of 
repentance ;*' or, " by preaching repentance." " By the 
continual mortifying our corrupt affections;" it should be, 
^by the continual mortifying o/," or, "by continually 



SYNTAX. 199 

mortifying our corrupt affections." " They laid out them- 
selves towards the advancing and promoting the good of 
it;" " towards advancing and promoting the good." "It 
is aw overvaluing ourselves, to reduce every thing to the 
narrow measure of our capacities;" "it is overvaluing 
ourselves," or, " rt?2 overvaluing 0/ ourselves." "Keep- 
ing of one day in seven," &c. it ought to be, " the keep- 
ing o/one day ;" or, " keeping one day." 

A phrase in which the article precedes the present 
participle, and the possessive preposiiion follows it, will 
not, in every instance, convey the same meaning, as 
would be conveyed by the participle without the article 
and preposition. " He expressed the pleasure he had in 
the hearing of the philosopher," is capable of a different 
sense from, " He expressed the pleasure he had in hear- 
ing the philosoper. When, therefore, we wish, for the 
sake of harmony or variety, to substitute one of these 
phraseologies for the other, we should previously consi- 
der, whether they are perfectly similar in the sentiments 
they convey. 

2. The same observations, which have been made re- 
specting the effect of ihc article and participle, appear to 
be applicable ta the pronoun and participle, whea they 
are similarly associated : as, "Much depends on their ob- 
serving of tbe rule, and error will be the consequence of 
their neglecting o^ it," instead of " their obser'uing the rule, 
and their negleeting it.*^ We shall perceive this more 
clearlyj if we substitute a noun for the pronoun: as, 
"^Much depends upon Tyro^s obser~uing of WiQvxA^^^'' Sec. ; 
which is the same as, "Much depends on Tyro's obserr 
Vance of the rule." But, as this construction sounds ra- 
ther harshly, it would, in general, be better to express the 
sentiment in the following, or some other form : "Much 
depends on the rule's being observed : and error will be 
the consequence of its being neglected :" or—- ".on obser- 
ving the rule ; and— of neglecting it." This remark may 
be applied to several other modes of expression, which, 
though they are contended for as strictly correct, are not 
always the most eligible, on account of their unpleasant 
sound. 

We sometimes meet with expressions like the follow- 
ing : " In forming of his sentences, he was very exact;" 
u Prom calling of names, he proceeded to blows." But 
this is incorrect language; for prepositions do not, like 
articles and pronouns, convert the participle itself into the 



200 SYNTAX. 

nature of a substantive ; as we have shown above in the 
phrase, " By observing which." And yet the participle 
with its adjuncts, may be considered as a substantive 
phrase in the objective case, governed by the preposition 
or verb, expressed or understood : as, ^' By firomising 
much^ and fierforming btit little^ we become despicable." 
"He studied to avoid expressing himself too severely.^' 

3. As the perfect participle and the imperfect tense, 
are sometimes different in their form, care must be taken 
that they be not indiscriminately used. It is frequently 
said, " He begun," for "he began ;" " He run," for " he 
ran;" "He drunk," for "he drank;" the participle be- 
ing here used instead of the imperfect tense : and much 
more frequently the imperfect tense instead of the parti- 
ciple : as, " I had wrote," for " I had written ;" " I was 
chose," for " I was chosen :" " I have eat," for " I have 
eaten." " His words were interwove with sighs;" "were 
interwovenJ'^ " He would have spoke;" ''' sjioken.** "He 
hath bore witness to his faithful servant;" '■^ borne.'* 
"By this means he over-run his guide;" ^'' over-ran,*' 
"The sun has rose;" '^ risen.** ''His constitution has 
been greatly shook, but his mind is too strong to be shook 
by sxich causes;" ''' shaken^** in both places. "They 
were verses wrote on glass;" '■'"written.** " Philosophei's 
have often mistook the source of true happiness :" it ought 
to be " mistaken.** 

The participle ending in ed, is often- improperly con- 
tracted, by changing erf into ^: as, "In good behaviour, 
he is not surfiast by any pupil of the school." "She was: 
much distrcst." They ought to be, " surpassed^* ^^dis- 
tressed.*' 

4. When a substantive is put absolutely, and is not the 
subject of any following verb, it remains connected with 
the participie, and is called the case ab'iolute^ or the nom?- 
native absolute : as, " '^)l{\q painter being entirely conjioied 
to that part of time h6 has chosen, the picture compriseij 
but very few incidents.'* Here, the painter is the subject of 
no verb, as the verb comprises^ which follows, agrees with 
picture. But when the substantive preceding the participle 
is the subject of the subsequent verb, it loses its absolute- 
ness, and is like every other nominative; as, "The 
painter^ being entirely confined to that part of time which 
he has chosen, cannot exhibit S2iV\Q\i% stages of the same 
action." In this sentence we see that the fiainter is the 
nominative to the verb can exhibit. In the following sen- 



SYNTAX. 201 

kce, a still .different construction takes place : *' The 
painter's being entirely confined to that part of time 'which 
he has chosen^ deprives him of the power of exhibiting; 
various stages of the same action." In this sentence, if 
we inquire for the nominative case, by asking, what de- 
prives the painter of the power of exhibiting various sta- 
ges of the same action, we shall find it to be the words 
marked in italics ; and this state of things belonging to the 
painter governs it in the possessive case, and forms the 
compound nominative to the verb deprives. 

In the sentence, " What do you think of my horse's 
running to-day ?" it is implied that the horse did actually 
run. If it is said, " What think you of my horse running 
to-day ?'* it is intended to ask, whether it be proper for 
my horse to run to-day. This distinction, though frequent- 
ly disregarded, deserves attention : for it is obvious, that 
ambiguity may arise, from using the latter only of these 
phraseologies, to express both meanings. 

The active participle is frequently introduced without 
an obvious reference to any noun or pronoun ; as, " Ge- 
nerally sfieakingi h\% conduct was very honourable:" 
" Granting this to be true, what is to be inferred from 
it ?" " It is scarcely possible to act otherwise, considering 
the frailty of human nature." In these sentences, there 
is no noun expressed or implied, to which sfieaking^ grant- 
ing^ and considering^ can be referred. The most natural 
construction seems to be, that a pronoun is to be under- 
stood: as, " We considering the frailty of human nature," 
18cc. ; "/granting this to be true,*' &c. ^ 

The word the before the active participle, in the follow- 
ing sentences, and in all others of a similar construction, 
is improper and should be omitted : " This style may be 
more properly called Me talking upon paper than wri- 
ting:" " y^e advising, or ^Ae attempting, to excite such 
disturbances, is unlawful :" *' The taking from another 
what is his, without his knowledge or allowance, is called 
stealing." They should be ; " May be called talking up- 
on papery" " Advising or attempting to excite disturban- 
ces;" " Taking from another what is his," &c. 

In some of these sentences, the infinitive mood might 
very properly be adopted : as, " To advise or attempt ;" 
"To take from another," See. 

You can now proceed to correct and parse the follow- 
ing 



202 SYNTAX. 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

Esteeming themselves wise, they became fools. 

Suspecting not only ye, but they also, I was studious to 
avoid all intercourse. 

I could not avoid considering, in some degree, they as 
enemies to me : and he as a suspicious friend. 

From having exposed hisself too freely in different cli- 
mates, he entirely lost his health. 

The examples ivhich follow^ are suited to the notes and ob~ 
x'ations under Rule VII. 

1. By observing of truth, you will command esteem, as 
well as secure peace. 

He prepared them for this event, by the sending to them 
proper information. 

A person may be great or rich by chance ; but cannot 
be wise or good, without the taking pains for it. 

Nothing could have made her so unhappy, as the marry- 
ing a man who possessed such principles. 

The changing times and seasons, the removing and set- 
ting up of kings, belong to Providence alone. 

The middle station of life seems to be the mosf advan- 
tageously situated for gaining of wisdom. Poverty turns 
our thoughts too much upon the supplying otar wants ; and 
riches upon the enjoying our superfluities. 

Pliny, speaking of Cato the Censor's'disapproving the 
Grecian orators, expressed himself thus. 

Prppriety of pronunciation is the giving to every word 
thatTbund, which the nnost polite usage of the language 
appropriates to it. 

The not attending to this rule, is the cause of a very 
common error. 

This was in fact a converting the deposite to his own 
use. 

2. There will be no danger of their spoiling their faces, 
or of their gaining converts. 

For his avoiding that precipice, he is indebted to his 
friend's care. 

It was from our misunderstanding the directions, that 
we lost our way. 

In tracing of his history, we discover little that is 
worthy of imitation. 



SYNTAX. 203 

By reading of books written by the best authors, his 
mind became highly improved. 

3. By too eager pursuit, he run a great risk of being 
disappointed. 

He had not long enjoyed repose, before he begun to be 
weary of having nothing to do. 

He was greatly heated, and drunk with avidity. 

Though his conduct was, in some respects, exceptiona- 
ble, yet he dared not to commit so great an offence, as that 
which was proposed to him. 

A second deluge learning thus o'er-run : 
And the monks finish'd what the Goths begun. 

If some events had fell out very unexpectedly, I should 
have been present. 

He would have went with us, had he been invited. 

He returned the goods which he had stole, and made all 
the reparation in his power. 

They have chose the part of honour and virtue. 

His •vices have, weakened his mind, and broke his health. 
He had mistook his true interest, and found himself for- 
sook by his former adherents. 

The bread that has been eat is soon forgot. 

No contentions have arose amongst them since their re- 
conciliation. 

The cloth had no seam, but was wove throughout,.^ 

The French language is spoke in every state in Eu- 
rope. 

His resolution was too strong to be shook by slight op- 
position. 

He was not much restrained afterwards, having took im- 
proper liberties at first. 

He has not yet wore off the rough manners, which he 
brought with him. 

You who have forsook your friends, are entitled to no 
confidence. 

They who have bore a part in the labour, shall share 
Vthe rewards. 

When the rules have been wantonly broke, there can 
15e no plea for favour. 

He writes as the best authors would have wrote^ had 
they writ on the same subject. 



204 SYNTAX. 

Helieapt up great riches, but past his time miserably. 
He talkt and stampt with such vehemence, that he 
was suspected to be insane. 



SECTION VIT. 



RULE VIII. 

Adverbs qualify verbs^ adjectives^ fiarticijiles^ and other 
adverbs. 

Adverbs, though they have no government of case, tense, 
Sec. require an appropriate situation in the sentence, viz. 
for the most part, before adjectives, after verbs active or 
neuter, and frequently between the auxiliary and the verb : 
as, *' He made a x'<?7'i/ sewsi^/e discourse; he 5//o^> unaf- 
fectedly 2iT\d. forcibly ; and wa« attentively' heard^k^Y the 
whole assembly." 

A few instances of erroneous positions of adverbs may 
serve to illustrate the rule. ^' He must not expect to find 
study agreeable always;" '-^ always agreeable." "We 
always find them ready when we want them ;" " we find 
XhtrsMilways ready," &;c. "Dissertations on the prophe- 
cies which have remarkably been fulfilled ;" " which 
have been remarkably."' " Instead of looking contemptu- 
ously down on the crooked in mind or body, we should 
look up thankfully to God, who hath made us better:" 
"instead of looking down contemfituously^ 8cc. we should 
thankfully look up.^" 8cc. " If thou art blessed naturally 
with a good memory, continually exercise it;" ^^ naturally 
blessed^*' Sec. " exercise it continually.'* 

Sometimes the adverb is placed with propriety before 
the verb, or at some distance after it; sometimes between 
the two auxiliaries; and sometimes after them both: as 
in the following examples. " Vice always creeps by de- 
grees, and insensibly iwir.es around us those concealed 
fetters, by which we are at last comfiletely bound." " He 
encouraged the English Barons to carry their opposition 



SYNTAX. 205 

farther,*^ " They compelled him to declare that he would 
adjure the realm ybr ex^er;" instead of, "to carry further 
their opposition j" and " to abjure for ever the realm.'* 
"He has generally been reckoned an honest man:" 
" The book may aliuays be had at such a place;" in pre- 
ference to " has been generally :" and '^ may be always." 
" These rules will be clearly understood, after they have 
been diligently studied," are preferable to, " These rules 
will clearly be understood, after ihey have diligently been 
studied." 

When adverbs are emphatical, they may introduce a 
sentence, and be separated from the word to which they 
belong: as, '^ How completely this most amiable of hu- 
man virtues, had taken possession of his soul !" This po- 
sition of the adverb is most frequent in interrogative and 
exclamatory phrases. 

From the preceding remarks and examples, it appears 
that no exact and determinate rule can be given for the 
placing of adverbs, on all occasions. The general rule 
may be of considerable use: but the easy flow and per- 
spicuity of the phrase, are the things which ought to be 
chiefly regarded. 

The adverb t//fr<? is often used as an expletive, or as a 
word that adds nothing to the sense : in which case it pre- 
cedes the verb and nominative noun: as, " There is a 
person at the door;" *' There -are some thieves in the 
house:" which would be as well, ot better, expressed 
by saying, " A person is at the door ;" " Some thieves 
iwe in the house." Sometimes, it is made use of to give 
a small degree of emphasis to the sentence : as, " There 
was a man sent from Go<3, whose name was John." When 
it is applied in its strict sense, it principally follows the 
verb and the nominative case; as, " The man stands 
there. ^^ ^ _ ' 

I. The adverb Tze-ycr generally precedes the verb; as, 
'•1 never was there ;"" He never comes at a proper 
time." When an auxiliary is used, it is placed indifferent- 
ly, either before or after this adverb : as, "He was ne- 
ver seen (or never was seen) to laugh from that time." 
Never seems to be improperly used in the following pas- 
sages. " Ask me never so much dowry and gift." " If I 
' make my hands never so clean." " Charm he never so 
wisely." The word " ex^er" would be more suitable to 
the sense.— ^Tyf7- is sometimes improperly used for never: 

s 



20 G SYNTAX. 

as, "I seldom or ever see him now.'* It should be, " 1 
seldom or never ;'*^ the speaker intending to say, " that 
rarely, or rather at no time, does he see him now ;" not 
*' rarely," or, " at any time." 

2. In imitation of the French idiom, the adverb of place 
tvhere, is often used instead of the pronoun relative eiid a 
preposition. " They framed a protestation, where^ '.hey 
repeated all their former claims," i.e. "m ivhich x.hty 
repeated." "The king was still determined to run for- J 
wards, in the same course where he was already, by his 
precipitate career, too fatally advanced ;" i. e. " in nvhich 
he was." But it would be better to avoid this mode of 
expression. 

The adverbs hence^ thence^ and nvhence^ imply a prepo- 
sition ; for they signify, " from this place, from that 
place, from what place." It seems, therefore, strictly 
speaking, to be improper to join a preposition with them, 
because it is superfluous: as, "This is the leviathan, 
from whence the wits of our age are said to borrow their 
weapons ;" " an ancient author prophecies from hence." 
But the origin of these words is little attended, to, and the 
preposition/ro7?2 is so often used in construction with them, 
that the omission of it, in many cases, would seem stiff, 
and be disagreeable. 

The adverbs here^ there, tvhere^ are often improperly 
applied to verbs signifying motion, instead of the adverbs • 
hither, thither ,' ivhither : as, "He came here hastily;" 
" They rode there with speed." They should be, " He 
came Ai^er;" " They rode MzM^r," Sec. 

3. We have some examples of adverbs being used for 
substantives: "In 1687, he erected it into a community 
of regulars, since when, it has begun to increase in those 
countries as a religious order;" i. e. " since which time.'^ 
** A little while and I shall not see you;" i. e. " a short 
time." "It is worth their while;" i. e. "it deserves 
their time and pains." But this mode of expression ra- 
ther suits familiar than grave style. The same may be said 
of the phrase, " To do a thing any how j*' i.e. "in any 
manner;" or, ^^ somehow;'* i. e. "in some manner." 
*' Somehow, worthy as these people are, they are under 
the influence of prejudice." 

Such expressions as the following, though not destitute 
of authority, are very inelegant, and do not suit the idiom 
of gur language;" "The then ministry," for, " the mi- 



^^ii/v ^-fT^if^?? 



SYNTAX. 20T 

Jiisters of that time;" **' The above discourse," for, " the 
preceding discourse." 

4. Two negatives, in English, destroy one another, or 
are equivalent to an affirmative : as, '' J^or did they not 
perceive him;" that is, ^'' ihey did perceive him." " His 
language, though inelegant, is not ungranvmaticalj* that 
is, ''It is grammatical." 

It is- better to express an affirmation, by a regular af- 
firmative, than by two separate negatives, as in the former 
sentence : but when one of the negatives is joined to an- 
other word, as in the latter sentence, the two negatives 
form a pleasing and delicate variety of expression. 

Some writers have improperly employed two negatives 
instead of one: as in the following instances: "I never 
did repent of doing good, nor shall not now ;" " nor shall 
I noiv.^* "Never no imitator grew up to this author:" 
" never did any" &c. " I cannot by no means allow him. 
what his argument must prove;" "I cannot by any 
means," &c. or, " I can by no mea7is." " Nor let no 
comforter approach me;" "Nor let any comforter," &c. 
** Nor is danger ever apprehended in such a government, 
110 more than we commonly apprehend danger from thun- 
der or. earthquakes :" it should be, '^ any more,*\ *' Ari- 
osto, Tasso, Galileo, no more than Raphael, were not 
born in Republics." It would be better thus, " Neither 
Ariosto, Tasso, nor Galileo, any more than Raphael, was 
born in a republic. 

Now correct and parse the following 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

He was pleasing not often because he was vain. 

William nobly acted, though be was unsuccessful. 

We may happily live, though oi^r possessions are small. 

From whence we may date likewise the period of this 
event. 

It cannot be impertinent or ridiculous therefore to re- 
monstrate. 

/He offered an apology, which being not admitted, he 
became submissive. 

These things should be never separated. 

Unless he have more government of himself, he will be 
always discontented. 

Never sovereign was sa much beloved by the people. 



208 SYNTAX. 

He was determined to invite back the king, and to call 
together his friends. 

So well educated a boy gives great hopes to his friends. 

Not only he found her employed, but pleased and tran- 
quil also. 

We always should prefer our duty to our pleasure. 

It is impossible continually to be at work. 

The heavenly bodies are in motion perpetually. 

Having not known, or having not considered, the mea- 
sures proposed, he failed of success. 

My opinion was given on rather a cursory perusal of the 
book. 

It is too common with mankind, to be engrossed, and 
overcome totally, by present events. 

When the Romans were pressed with a foreign enemy, 
the women contributed all their rings and jewels volunta- 
rily, to assist the government. 

The following sentences exemjilify the notes and obsei^a- 
tions under Rule VIII. 

1. They could not persuade him, though they were ne- 
ver so eloquent. 

If some persons* opportunities were never so favoura- 
ble, they would be too indolent to improve them. 

2. He dv^ew up a petition, w^here he too freely repre- 
sented his'%wn merits. 

Kis follies had reduced him to a situation where he had 
much to fear, and nothing to hope. ' - 

It is reported that the prince will come here to-morrow^ 
George is active ; he walked there in less than an hour. 

Where are you all going in such haste ? 
Whither have they been since they left the city ? 

3. Charles left the seminary too early, since when he 
has made very little improvement. 

Nothing is better worth the while of young persons, than 
the acquisition of knowledge and virtue. 

4. Neither riches nor honours, nor no such perishing 
goods, can satisfy the desires of an immortal spirit. 

Be honest, nor take no shape nor semblance of dis- 
guise. 



SYNTAX. 20,9 

We need not, nor do not, confine his operations to nar- 
row limits. 

I am resolved not to comply with the proposal, neither 
at present, nor at any other time. 

There cannot be nothing more insignificant than vanity. 

Nothing never affected her so much as this misconduct 
of her child. 

Do not interrupt me yourselves, nor let no one disturb 
my retirement. 

These people do not judge wisely, nor take no proper 
measures to effect their purpose. 

The measure is so exceptionable,^ that we cannot by no 
means permit it. 

I have received no information on the subject, neither 
from him nor from his friend. 

Precept nor discipline is not so forcible as example. 

The king nor the queen was not at all deceived in the 
business. 



SECTION VIII. 



RULE IX. 

Prono'uns must agree tvith the nouns for which they stand 
in "^number and gender : as, 

"The king and the queen had put on their robes;" 
" The moon appears, and she shines, but the light is not 
■Aer own." 

Of this rule there are many violations to be met with; 
a few of which may be sufficient to put the learner on his 
guard. ^^ Each of the sexes should keep within its parti- 
cular bounds, and content ^/K?m«e/x'e'5 with the advantages of 
Mezr particular districts:" better thus: " The sexes should 
keep within their particular bounds," &c. " Can any owe, 
on their entrance into the world, be fully secure that they 
shall not be deceived?" "on his entrance," and "that he 
shall," " One should not think too favourably of our- 
selves^** " of one's self 



210 SYNTAX. 

1. Personal pronouns being used to supply the place oi 
the nouns, are not employed in the same part of a sen- 
tence as the noun which they represent; for it would be 
improper to say, " The king he is just ;" " I saw her the 
queen;" "The men they \wctq there;" *' Many words 
.they darken speech ;" " My banks they are furnished with 
bees." These personals are superfluous, as there is very 
seldom any occasion for a substitute in the same part 
where the principal word is present. The nominative 
case they^ in the following sentence, is also superfluous : 
^ Who instead of going about doing good, they SLre per- 
petually intent upon doing mischief." 

This rule is often infiinged, by tlie case absolute's not 
being properly distniguished from certain forms of ex- 
pression apparently similar to it. In this sentence, " The 
candidate being chosen, the people carried him in tri- 
\imph," the word candidate is in the absolute case. But 
in the following sentence, "^he candidate, being chosen, 
was carried in triumph by the people," candidate is the 
nominative to the verb was cari^Vd; and therefore it is 
not in the case absolute. Many writers, however, ap- 
prehending the nominative in this latter sentence, as well 
as in the former, to be put absolutely, often insert an- 
other nominative to the verb, and say, " The candidate 
b'^ing chosen, he was carried in triumph by the. people;" 
" The general approving the plan, he put it in execution." 
The error in each of these two sentences, is, thajt there 
are two nominatives used, where one would haiSB been 
sufficient, and consequently that A(? is redundant. 

2. It i* and it was, are often, after the mani^er of the 
French, used in a plural construction, and by some of Otir 
best writers : as, *' /^ is either a^few great men who de- 
cide for the whole, or it is the rabble that follow a sedi- 
tious ringleader;" " /^ fs they that are the real authors, 
though the soldiers are the actors of the revolutions ;" 
^^ It. was the heretics that first began to rail," &c. ; ^^'Tis 
/^ese that early taint the female mind." This license in 
the construction oiit is, (if it be proper to admit it at all,) 
has, however, been certainly abused in the following sen- 
tence, which is thereby made a very awkward one. " It 
?"« wonderful the very few accidents, which, in several 
years, happen from this practice." The word accidents 
is not in apposition to it following the neuter verb dej it 
is a nominative without a verb, without being the nomina- 



SYNTAX. 211. 

live independent, or absolute. The sentence should be, 
" It is wonderful that so few accidents happen," Sec. 

3. The interjections O! Qfi! and jih! require the ob- 
jective case of a pronoun in the first person after them : 
as, " O me ! Oh me! Ah me I" But the nominative case 
in the second person : as, "O thou persecutor!" "Oh 
ye hypocrites !" " O thou, who dwellest," Sec. ; because 
the first person is governed by a preposition understood ; 
as, " Ah/br me !" or, " O nvhat will become of me !" Sec; 
and the second person is in the nominative independent, 
there being a direct address. 

The neuter pronoun, by an idiom peculiar to the Eng- 
lish language, is frequently joined in explanatory sen- 
tences, with a noun or pronoun of the masculine or femi- 
nine gender: as, " It was Ij" "It was the man or wo- 
man that did it." 

The neuter pronoun it is sometimes omitted and under- 
stood ; thus we say, " As appears, as follows;" for "As 
it appears, as it follows ;" and " May be," for " It may 
be." 

The neuter pronoun it is sometimes employed to ex- 
press ; 

1st, The subject of &ny discourse or inquiry : as, " iif 
happened on a summer's day;" " Who is it that calls on 
me?" 

2d, The state or condition of any person or thing : as, 
" How is z^ with you ?" 

3d, The thing, whatever it be, that is the cause of any 
effect or event, or any person considered merely as a 
cause : as, "We heard her say it was not he;" "The 
truth is, it was I that helped her." 

You may now correct and parse the following 

EXERCISES -IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

The male amongst birds seems to discover no beauty, 
but in the colour of its species. 

Take handfuls of ashes of the furnace, and let Moses 
sprinkle it towards heaven, in the sight of Pharaoh ; and 
it shall become small dust. 

Rebecca took goodly raiment, which were with her in 
the house, and put them upon Jacob. 

The fair sex, whose task is not to mingle in the labours 
of public life, has its own part assigned it to act 



1 



212 SYNTAX. 

The Hercules man of war foundered at sea; she over- 
set, and lost most of her men. 

The mind of man cannot be long without some food to 
nourish the activity of his thoughts. 

I do not think any one should incur censure for being 
tender of their reputation. 

The following examples are adapted to the notes and obseV' 
vations under Rule IX. 

1. Whoever entertains such an opinion, he judges er- 
roneously. 

The cares of this world they often choke the growth of 
virtue. 

Disappointments and afflictions, however disagreeable, 
they often improve us. 

2. It is remarkable his continual endeavours to serve 
us, notwithstanding our ingratitude. 

It is indisputably true his assertiojn, though it is a para- 
dox. 

3. Ah! unhappy thee, who art deaf to the calls of duty, 
and of honour. 

Oh ! happy we, surrounded witli" so many blessings. 



SECTION IX. 



RULE X. 

' 'Mvery adjective pronoun belongs to some noun or pr6* 
noun expressed or understood. 

The adjective pronouns this a7id that and their plurals 
these anoJ those, and other and another, and the numeral 
adjectives, must agree in number with the nouns to which 
they belong. 

A few instances of the breach of the latter part of this 
rule are here exhibited. " I have not travelled this 
twenty years ;** " these twenty.'* <* I am not recom- 
mending these kind of sufferings ;** " this kind.*' " Thpse 
set of books was a valuable present;" \\that set." 



SYNTAX. 213 

1. The word means in the singular number, and the 
phrases, " By this means^^ " -Sy that means^'* are used by 
our best and most correct writers; namely, Bacon, Tillot- 
son, Atterbury, Addison, Steele, Pope, Sec* They are, 
indeed, in so general and approved use, that it would ap- 
pear awkward, if not affected, to apply the old singular 
form, and say, " By this mean ; by that mean j it w^as by a 
mean ;" although it is more agreeable to the general ana- 
logy of the language. "The word meaws, (says Priestley,) 
belongs to the class of words, which do not change their 
termination on account of number : for it is used alike in 
both numbers." 

The word amends is used in this manner in the follow- 
ing sentences : " Though he did not succeed, he gained the 
approbation of his country ; and with this amends he 
was content." " Peace of mind is an honourable ainends 

* " By this means he had them the more at vantage, being tired and harrassed with a 
long march.''— BACON. 

" By this means one great restraint from doing evil would be taken away." — " And 
this is an admirable means to improve men in virtue."—** By that means they have rea- 
dered their duty more difficult*"— TILLOTSON. 

" It renders ns careless of approving ourselves to God, and by tha' means securing the 
continuance of his goodness." — " A- good Character, when established, should not be 
rested in as an end, but employed as omean* of doing still further good."— ATTElt- 
BURY. 

** By this means tbey are happy in each other."—" He by that meant preserves his s«« 
periority."— ADDISON. 

" Your vanity by t/us means will want its food '♦—STEELE. 

*' By this meamalone, their greatest obstacles will vaiJsh."— POPE. 

" Which custom has proved thie most effectual means to ruin the nobles."— DEAN 
SWIFT. 

~*' There ?> no freany of escaping the peripcution."—" Faith is not only a msans of 
obeying, but a principal act of obedience."— DR. YOUNG. 

"He looked on money as o necessary means ofmaintaining and iicreasingr power.'' — 
LORD LITTLETON'S HENRY II. . 

"John was too much intimidated riot to embrace every means afforded for his safety." 
—GOLDSMITH. 

" Lest fA/.? mtans should fail."—" By means o^ ship-money the late king," &c.— " The 
on^y mean^' of securing a durable peace."— HUME. 

" By this means there was nothing left to the Parliament of Ireland," &c,— BLA"CK- 
&TOXE. 

*^.8?j/ this means %o many slaves escaped out of the hands of their masters,'*— DR, 
ROBERTSON. 

*' By this means they bear witness to each other."- BUKKE. 

"% this means il>e wi-ath of man was made to turn aga'nst itself."— DR. BLAIR* 

" A magazine, which has by this meant, contained," &c.— " Birds, in general procure 
"heir food by 7«c«7J5^ of their ftcoA;."— DR. PALEY. 



214 SYNTA5C. 

for the sacrifices of interest.*' *< In return he received the 
thanks of his employers, and the present of a large estate ; 
these were ample amends for his labours." " We have 
described the rewards of vice : the good man's amends are 
of a different nature." 

It can scarcely be doubted, that this word amends (like 
the word means') had formerly its correspondent form in 
the singular number, as it is derived from the French 
amende^ though now it is exclusively established in the 
plural form. If, therefore, it is alleged that mean should 
be applied in the singular, because it is derived from the 
French moyen^ the same kind of argument may be advan- 
ced in favour of the singular amende: and the general 
analogy of the language may also be pleaded in support 
of it. 

Campbell, in his "Philosophy of Rhetoric," has the 
following remark on the subject before us : " No persons 
of taste will, I presume, venture so far to violate the pre- 
sent usages, and consequently to shock the ears of the 
generality of readers, as to say, " By this mean^ by that 
mean.** - . 

Lowth and Johnson seeim to be against the use cf means 
in the singular number. They do not, however, speak 
decisively on the point; but rather dubiously, and as if 
they knew that they were questiorjing eminent authorities, 
as well as general practice. That they were not decided- 
ly against the application of this word to the singular nuni- 
ber, appears from their own language: " Whole sentences, 
whether simple or compound, may become members of 
other sentences, by means of some additional connexion** 

"There is no other method of teaching that of which 
any one is ignorant, but by means of something already 
known.*' " Neither grace of person nor vigour of under- 
standing, is to be regarded otherwise than- as u means of 
happiness." 

The practice of the best and most correct writers, or 
a great majority of them, corroborated' by general usage, 
forms, during its continuance, the standard of language ; 
especially, if, in particular instances, this practice con- 
tinue, after objection and due consideration. Every con- 
nexion and application of words and phrases, thus support- 
ed, must therefore be proper, and entitled to respect, if 
not exceptionable in a moral point of view. 



f 



SYNTAX. 215 

"Sermo constat ratione, vetustate, auctoritate, consue- 
tudine. 
" Consuetudo vero certissima loquendi magistra.'* 

QUINCTILIAN. 

" Si volet usus 

*' Quern penes arbitrium est, et jus, et norma loquendi." 

Horace. 

On this principle, many forms of expression, not less 
deviating from the general analogy of the language, than 
those before mentioned, are to be considered as strictly 
proper and justifiable. Of this kind are the following: 
*^ JVone of them are varied to express the gender:" and 
yet none originally signified no one. «He Himself sh2L\\ do 
the work:" here, what was first appropriated to the 
objective, is now properly used as the nominative case. 
« You have behaved yourselves well ;" in this example 
the word ijou is put in the nominative case plural, with 
strict propriety; though formerly it was confined to the 
objective case, and ije exclusively used for the nomina- 
tive. 

With respect to anomalies and variations of language, 
thus established, it is the grammarian's business to submit, 
not to remonstrate. In pertinaciously opposing the de- 
cision of proper authoritv, and contending for obsolete 
modes of expression, he may, indeed, display learning and 
critical sagacity ; and, in some degree, obscure points that 
are sufficiently clear and decided; but he cannot reasoii- 
ably hope, either to succeed in his aims, or to assist the 
learner, in discovering and respecting the true standard 
and principles of language. ' 

Cases which custom has left dubious, are certainly with- 
m the grammarian's province. Here, he may reason and 
remonstrate on the gro.und of derivation, analogy, and 
propriety: and his reasonings may refine and improve the 
language: but when authority speaks out and decides the 
point, it were perpetually to unsettle the language, to 
admit of cavil and debate. Anomalies then, under the 
limitation mentioned, become the law, as clearly as the 
plainest analogies. 

You will perceive that in the following sentences, 
the use of the word mean, in the old form, has a 
very uncouth appearance : « By the mean of adversity, 
we are often instructed." « He preserved his health, by 



216 SYNTAX. 

mean of exercise." "Frugality is one mean of acquii:ing 
a competency." They should be, " By means of adversi- 
ty," &c. "By means of exercise," Sec. "Frugality is 
one Tneans^'* &c. 

Good writers do indeed make use of the substantive 
7nean in the singular number, and in that number only, to 
signify mediocrity, middle state, &c. : as, " This is a 
mean between the two extremes." But in the sense of 
instrumentality, it has been long disused by the best au- 
thors, and by almost every writer. 

This means and that means should be used only when 
they refer to what is singular ; these means and those meansy 
when they respect plurals: as, "He lived temperately, 
and by this means preserved his health;" "The scholars 
Avere attentive, industrious, and obedient to their tutors ; 
and by these means acquired knowledge." 

2. When two persons or things are spoken of in a sen- 
tence, and there is occasion to mention them again for the 
sake of distinction, that is used in reference to the former, 
and this in reference to the latter : as, " Self-love, which 
is the spring of action in the soul, is ruled by reason : but 
for that^ man would be inactive; and butfcTr this^ he would 
be active to no end." * 

3. The distributive adjective pronouns, each, everyy 
either^ agree with nouns, pronouns, and verbs, of the sin- 
gular number only : as, "The king of Israel, and Jahosha- 
phat, the king of Judah, sat each on his throne ;" " £.ve- 
ry tree i« known by its fruit :" unless the plural noun con- 
vey a" collective idea: as, "Every six months;" "Eve- 
ry hundred years,** — The following phrases are excep- 
tionable: "Let each esteem others better than them- 
selves ;" It ought to be " himself." " It is requisite that 
the language should be both perspicuous and correct: in 
proportion as eiMer of these two qualities are wanting, the 
language is imperfect:" it should be, " is wanting. " Eve- 
ry one of the letters bear regular dates, and contain proofs 
of attachment :" " bears a regular date, 2iT\d 'contai72S." 
" JEvery town and village were burned; every grove and 
every tree were cut down :" " tvas burned, and was cut 
down." " jEx'frz/ freeman, and every citizen, have a right 
to give their votes :" " has a right to give his vote." 

Either is often used improperly, instead of euch : as^ 
"The king of Israel, and Jehoshaphat the king of Judah, 
sat either of them on his throne ;" " Nadab and Abihu, the 



SYNTAX. 2ir 

sons of Aaron, took either of them his censer.*' Each 
signifies both of them taken distinctly or separately; 
either properly signifies only the one or the other of them, 
taken disjunctively. 

4. Many persons are apt, in conversation, to use the 
personal pronoun them^ instead of the adjective pronouns 
these and those : as, " Give me them books," instead of 
^^ those books.*' We also frequently meet with ?Aose in- 
stead of they, at the beginning of a sentence, in which 
there is no particular reference to any preceding word: 
as, ^^ Those that sow in tears, sometimes reap in joy.'* 
" They that, or they who sow,*' &c. is better. 

I will now give you to parse and correct, the following 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

These kind of indulgences soften and injure the mind. 

Instead of improving yourselves, you have been playing 
this two hours. 

Those sort of favours did real injury, under the appear- 
ance of kindness. 

The chasm made by the earthquake was twenty foot 
broad, and one hundred fathom in depth. 

How many a sorrow should we avoid, if we were not 
industrious to make them ! 

He saw one or more persons enter the garden. 

. . ^: 
The exafnfiles whic/i folloiv. are suited to thenotes and ob- 
servations under Rule X. 

1. Charles was extravagant, and by this mean became 
poor and despicable. 

It was by that ungenerous mean that he obtained his 
end. 

Industry is the mean of obtaining competency. 

Though a promising measure, it is a mea'n**which I can- 
not adopt; 

This person embraced every opportunity to display his 
talents; and by these means rendered himself ridiculous. 

Joseph was industrious, frui^al, and discreet ;' and by 
this meaiis obtained property and reputation. 

2. Religion raises men ybove themselves; irreligion 
sinks them beneaih the brutes: that, bindsMhem down to 
a poor pitiabb' speck of perishable earth; this, opens for 
them a prospect to the bkies. 

T 



r ^^.7^, ^^m^'^^^. 



218 SYNTAX, 

More rain falls in the first two summer months, than in 
the first two winter ones : but it niakes a much greater 
show upon the earth, in those than in these; because there 
is a much slower evaporation. 

Rex and Tyrannus are of very different cnaracters. The 
one rules his people by laws to which they consent ; the 
other, by his absolute will and power: this is called free- 
dom, that, tyranny. 

3. Each of ihem, in their turn, receive the benefits to 
which they are entitled. 

My counsel to each of you is, that you should make it 
your endeavour to come to a friendly agreement. 

By discussing what relates to each particular, in their or- 
der, we shall better understand the subject. 

Every person, whatever be their station, are bound by 
the duties of morality and religion. 

Every leaf, every twig, every drop of water, teem with 
life. 

Every man's heart and temper is prodwctive of much 
inward joy or bitterness. 

Whatever he undertakes, either his pride^^or his folly 
disgust us. 

Every man and every w^man were ivumbered. 

Neither of those men seem to have any idea, that their 
opinions may be ill-founded. 

When benignity and gentleness reign within, we are aj- 
ways least in hazard from without : every person, and 
every occurrence, are beheld in the most favourable 
light. 
• On either side of the river was tljere the tree of life. 

4. Which of them two persons has most distinguished 
himself? 

None more impatiently suffer injuries, than those that 
arc most forward in doing them. 



SECTION X. 



RULE XL 

Relative /ironouns agree with their antecedents inper^on^ 
number ^ and gender. 



SYNTAX. 219 

The relative being of the same person that the antece- 
dent is, requires the verb which agrees with it, to be of 
the same person that it would be to agree with the ante- 
cedent ; as, '' Thou who lo-vesd wisdom^ walkest uprightly ;" 
" He who loves wisdom, walks uprightly;" "I who lovCy^ 
kc. 

Every relative must have an antecedent to which it re- 
fers, either expressed or implied: as, ^' Who is fatal to 
others, is so to himself;" that is, " the man who is fatal 
to others." 

Who^ which^ ivhat^ and the relative that^ though in the 
objective case, are always placed before the verb; as are 
also their compounds, whoever^ whosoever^ 8cc. : as, "He 
whom ye seek;" "'This is what you want;" i.e. " that 
which you want, or tlie thing which, or that which you 
want;" " Whomsoever you please to appoint." 

What is sometimes applied, in a manner which appears 
to be exceptionable : as, " All fevers, except what are 
called nervous," &c. It would at least be better to say, 
** except those which are called nervous." 

What is very frequently used as the representative of 
two cases; one the objective after a verb or preposition, 
and the other, the nominative to a subsequent verb: as, 
" I heard what was said." " He related what- \\ 21.^ seen." 
" According to what W2iS proposed." " We do not con- 
stantly love 7y/?ai5 has done us good." — This peculiar con- 
struction may be explained, by resolving wAaf into that 
which : as, " I heard that which was said," Sec. 

In a'few instances, the relative is introduced as the no- 
minative to a verb, be/ore the sentence or clause which it 
represents : as, " There was therefore, which is all that 
we assert, a course of life pursued by them, different from 
that w^ich they before led." Her^, the relative which is 
the representative of the whole of the last part of the 
sentence ; and its natural position is after that clause. 

Whatever relative is used, in one of a series of clauses 
relating to the same antecedent, the same. illative ought 
generally to be used in them i\L In the following sen- 
tence, this rule is violated: "It is remarkable, that Hol- 
land, against which the war was undertaken, and Mar, in 
the very beginning-, was reduced to the brink of destruc- 
tion, lost nothing." The clause ought to have been, 
" and ivhich in the very beginning." 

The relative frequently refers to a whole clause in the 
•ienteRp^, instead of a particular word in it: as, "The 



320 SYNTAX. 

resolution was adopted hastily, and without due considera- 
tion, which produced great dissatisfaction ;" that is, 
" which thing," namely the hasty adoption of the reso- 
lution. 

1. The pronoun that is frequently applied to persons 
as well as to things; but after an adjective in the superla- 
tive degree, and after the pronominal adjective sams^ it is 
generally used in preference to nvho ov which : as, 
" Charles XII. king of Sweden, was one of the greatest 
madmen that the world ever saw;" "Catiline's followers 
were the most profligate that could be found in any city." 
** He is the same man that we saw before." But if, after 
the word same^ a preposition should precede the relative, 
one of the other two pronouns must be employed, the 
pronoun that not admitting a preposition prefixed to it: 
as, " He is the same man, tvith ivhom you were acquaint- 
ed." It is remarkable, however, that, when the arrange- 
ment is a little varied, the word that admits the preposi- 
tion : as, " He is the same man, that you were acquainted 
Kvithr 

There are cases, wherein we cannot conveniently dis- 
pense with the relative that^ as applied to persons : as, 
first, after loho the interrogative; "Who that has any 
sense of religion, would have argued thus?" Secondly, 
when persons make but a part of the antecedent; " The 
woman, and the estate, that became his portion, were re- 
wards far beyond his desert." In neither of these exam- 
ples could any other relative have been used. 

2. The pronouns ivhichsoever^ whosoever^ and the like, 
are elegantly divided by the interposition gf the corres- 
ponding substantives: thus, " On whichsoever side the 
king cast his eyes;" would have sounded better, if writ- 
ten, " On which side %oever," &c. 

3. In some dialects, the word what is improperly used 
for that^ and sometimes we find it in this sense in writing : 
"They will never believe but w/i«? I have been entirely 
to blame." "I am not satisfied but what," Sec. instead of 
" but Ma?." The \woxd somewhat^ in the following sen- 
tence, seems to be used improperly. " These punish- 
ments seem to Ifave been exercised in somewhat an arbi'- 
trary manner." Sometimes we read, " In somewhat of." 
The meaning is, " in a manner which is in some respects 
arbitrary." 

4. The pronoun relative who is so much appropriated 
to persons, that there is generally harrshness in the appH- 



SYNTAX. 221 

oalion of it, except to the proper names of persons, or the 
general terms man^ ivoinan^ &;c. A term which only im- 
plies the idea of persons, and expresses them by some 
circumstance or epithet, will hardly authorize the use of 
it : as, " That faction in England, ivho most powerfully 
opposed his arbitrary pretensions." " That faction nvhich^'^ 
would have been better; and the same remark will serve 
for the following examples; "France, ivho was in alliance 
with Swe'den.'* " The court, ivho^^' &c. " The cavalry 
w/io^" Sec. " The cities who aspired at liberty." " That 
party among us who^" 8cc. "The family whom they con- 
sider as usurpers." 

In some cases it may be doubtful, whether this pronoun 
is properly applied or not : " The number of substantial 
inhabitants with whom some cities abound." For when a 
term directly and necessarily implies persons, it may in 
many cases claim the personal relative. " None of the 
company whom he most affected, could cure him of the 
melancholy under which he laboured." The word ac- 
quaintance niay have the same construction. 

5. We hardly consider little children to be persons, be- 
cause that term gives us the idea of reason and reflection: 
and therefore the application of the personal relative w//o, 
in this case, seems to be harsh: "A child w/20." Zf, 
though neuter, is generally applied, when we speak of an 
infant or child : as, " 7^ is a lovely infant :" " It is a healthy 
chdd." The personal pronoun is still more improperly 
applied to animals : " A lake frequented by that fowl, whom 
nature has taught to dip the wing in water." 
i 6. When t^e name of a person is uspd merely as a name, 
and it^does not refer to the person, the pronoun who ought 
riot to be applied. "It is no wonder if such a man did not 
shine at the court of Queen Elizabeth, wAo was but ano- 
ther name for priidence and economy." Better thus; 
" Whose name was but anothei' word for prudence," &c. 
The word wZ/o^e-begins likewise to 6e restricted to per- 
sons ; yet it is not done so generally, but that good writers, 
even in prose, use it when speaking of things. The con- 
struction is not, however, always pleasing, as we may see 
in the following instances : " Pleasqre, whose nature," &c. 
" Call everv production, whose parts and ivhose nature," 
&c. 

In one case, however, custom authorizes us to use 
vy/tzc/z vi^ith respect to persons ; and that is when we want 
to distinguish ^ne person of two, or a particular person 

T 2 



222 SYNTAX. 

among a number of others. We should then say, " Which 
of the two," or, " Which of them is he oy she ?" 

7. As the pronoun relative has no distinction of num- 
ber, we sometimes find an ambiguity in the use of it: as, 
when we say, " The disciples of Christ, whom we imi- 
tate;** we may mean the imitation either of Christ, or of 
his disciples. The accuracy and clearness of the sentence, 
depend very much upon the proper and determinate use 
of the relative, so that it may readily present its antece- 
dent to the mind of the hearer or reader, without any ob- 
scurity or ambiguity. 

Now parse and correct the following 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

The exercise of reason appears as little in these sports-l 
men, as in the beasts whom they sometimes hunt, and by 
whom they are sometimes hunted. 

They which seek wisdom will certainly find her. 

The wheel killed another man, which is the sixth which 
have lost their lives, by this means. 

What is the reason that our language is less refined than 
those of Italy, Spain, or France ? 

Thou who has been a witness to the fact, can give an ac- 
count of it. 

In religious concerns, or what is conceived to be such, 
every man must stand or fall by the decision of the Great 
Judge. 

Something like what have been here premised, are the 
conjectures of Dryden. 

Thou great First Cause, least understood ! 

Who all my sense confin'd 
To know but this, that thou art good, 

And that myself am blind: 
Yet gave me in this dark estate, &c. 

What art thou, speak, that, on designs unknown. 
While others sleep, thus range the camp alone ? 

The following examp,les are adapted to the notes and ob- 
servations under Rule XI. 

1. Moses was the meekest man whom we read of in the 
©Id Testament. 



SYNTAX. 2^3 

Humility is one of the most amiable virtues which we 
can possess. 

They are the same persons who assisted us yesterday. 

The men and things which he has studied have not im- 
proved his morals. 

2. Howsoever beautiful they appear, they have no real 
merit. 

In whatsoever light we view him, his conduct will bear 
inspection. 

On whichsoever side they are contemplated, they ap- 
pear to advantage. 

However much he might despise the maxims of the 
king's administration, he kept a total silence on that sub- 
ject. 

3. He would not be persuaded but what I was greatly 
in fault. 

These commendations of his children, appear to have 
been made in somewhat an injudicious manner. 

4. He instructed and fed the crowds who surrounded 
him. 

Sidney was one of the wisest and most active governors, 
which Ireland have enjoyed for several years. 

He was the ablest minister which James ever possessed. 

The court, who gives currency to manners, ought to be 
exemplary. 

I am happy in the friend which I have long proved. 

5. The child whom we have just seen, is wholesomely 
fed, and not injured by bandages or clothing. 

He is like a beast of prey, who destroys without pity. 
'5. Having dllce disgusted him, he could never regain 
tjie favour of Nero, who was indeed another name for 
cruelty. 

Flattery, whose nature is to deceive ^nd betray, should 
be avoided as the poisonous adder. 

Who of those men came to his assistance ? 

7. The king dismissed his nainisier without any inqui- 
ry; who had never before committed so unjust an action. 

There are millions of people in the empire of China, 
whose support is derived almost entirely from rice. 



.224 SYNTAX. 

SECTION XI. 



RULE XII. 

When no no7ninative cotnes beiween the relative and the 
"verb^ the relative is the nominative to the verb; but when a 
nominative does come between the relative and the verb, the 
relative must be in the /lossessive case, and governed by the 
following noun, or in the objective., and governed by the fol- 
lowing verb, or by some fiarticifile or preposition, in its own 
member of the sentence: as, He who preserves me, to whom 
I owe my being, whose I am, and whom I serve, is eter- 
nal. 

In the several members of the last sentence, the rela- 
tive performs a different office. In the first member, it 
marks the agent; in the second, it submits to the govern- 
ment of the preposition; in the third, it represents the 
possessor; and in the fourth, the object of an action : and, 
therefore, it must be in the three different cases, corres- 
pondent to those offices. 

When both the antecedent and the relative become no- 
minatives, each to different verbs, the relative is the no- 
minative to the former, and the antecedent to the latter 
verb ; as, " True Philo.sopliy^ which is the ornament of our 
nature, co«6is^9 more In the love of our duty, and the 
practice of virtue, than in great talents and extensive 
knowledge.*' %^ .^ 

A few instances of erroneous construction will iltTistrate 
both the branches of the /fule. The three following re- 
fer to the first part. "How can we avoid being grateful 
to those whom, by repeated kind offices, have proved 
themselves our i^al friends?" " These ar€ the men 
whom you might suppose, were the aiithors of the work :" 
** If you were here, you would find three or four, whom 
you would say passed their time agreeably :" in all these 
places it Should be who instead of hvhom. ~ The two latter 
sentences contain a nominative between the relative jand 
the verb; and, therefore, seem to contravene thd rule; 
but you will reflect, that it is not the nominative of 
the verb with which the relative is connected. The re- 
maining examples refer to the second part of the rule. 
^' Men of fine talents are not always the persons who We 



SYNTAX. n-S 

shoiild esteem." " The persons who you dispute with, 
are precisely of your opinion.'* " Our tutors are our be- 
nefactors, who we owe obedience to, and who we ought 
to love." In these sentences, tohom should be used in- 
stead of ivho, 

1. When the pronoun is of the interrogative kind, the 
noun or pronoun containing the answer, must be in the 
same case as that which contains the queston : as, "' ivhose 
books are these? They are John's." " Who gave them 
to him ? TFe." *' Of ivhom did you buy them ? Of a 
bookseller; him who lives at the Bible and Crown." 
" Whom did y5u see there ? Both him and the shopman." 
You will readily comprehend this rule, by supplying the 
words which are understood in the answers. Thus, to 
expres^s the answers at large, we should say, " They are 
John's books." We gave them to him." " We bought 
them o*f him who lives," &c. " We saw both him and the 
shopman." 

Pronouns are sometimes made to precede the things 
which they represent : as, *' If a man declares in autumn, 
when he is eating them^ or in spring, when there 3.re noney 
that he loves .^ra/^es," 8cc. But this is a construction which 
is very seldom allowable. 

2. When the relative is preceded by two nominatives 
of different persons, the relative and verb may agree 
with either, according to the sense: as, " /am the man 
ivho command you ;" or, I am the 7nan who commands 
you." 

The form of the first of the two preceding sentences, 
expresses the meaning rather obscurely. It would be 
more perspicuous to say ; ** I who command you, am the 
man." Perhaps the difference of meaning, produced by 
referring the relative to different antecedents, will be 
niore evident to you in the following sentences. " I am 
the general who gives the orders to-day;" "I am the 
general, who give the orders to-day ;" that is, " I who 
give the orders to-day, am the general." 

When the relative and the verb have been determined 
to agree with either of the preceding nominatives, that 
agreement must be preserved throughout the sentence; 
as in the following instance: " I am the Lord that maketh 
all things: and strefchethiovxh the heavens alone." Isaiah^ 
xliv. 24. Thus far is consistent: The Zorc/, in the third 
person, is the antecedent, and the verbs agree with the 
relative in the third person : '' I am the Lord^ which Lprd 



■2 26 SYNTAX. 

or he that maketh all things." If /were made the ante- 
cedent, the relative and the verb should aj^ree with it in 
the first person; as, " /am the Lord, that make ail things, 
that stretch forth the heavens alone." But should it fol- 
low ; " That spreadeth abroad the earth by myself;" there 
would arise a confusion of persons, and a manifest sole- 
cism. 

Now correct and parse the following 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

We are dependent upon each other's assistance ! whom 
is there that can subsist by himself? 

If he will not hear his best friend, whom shall be sent to 
admonish him ? 

They who much is given to, will have much to answer 
for. • 

It is not to be expected that they, whom in early life, 
have been dark and deceitful, should afterwards become 
fair and ingenuous. 

They who have laboured to make us wise and good, are 
the persons who we ought to love and respect, and who 
we ought to be grateful to. 

The persons, who conscience and virtue support, may 
smile at the caprices of fortune. 

From the character of those who you associate with, 
your own will be estimated. 

That is the student who I gave the book to, and whom, 
I am persuaded, deserves it. 

1. Of whom were the articles bought? Of a mercer; 
he who resides near the mansion house. 

Was any person besides the mercer present ? Yes, both 
him and the clerk. 

Who was the money paid to ? To the mercer and his 
clerk. 

Who counted it ? Both the clferk and him ? 

2. I acknowledge that I am the teacher, who adopt that 
sentiment, and maintains the propriety of such measures. 

Thou art a friend that hast often relieved me, and that 
has not deserted hie now in the time of peculiar need. 

I am the man who approves of wholesome discipline, 
and who recommend it to others; but I am not a person 







SYNTAX. 227 

who promotes useless severity, or who object to mild and 
generous treatment. 

I perceive that thou art a pupil, who possesses bright 
parts, but who has cultivated theoi but little. 

Thou art he who breathesion the earth with the breath 
of sprinp;, and who covereih it with verdure and beaaty. 

I am the Lord thy God, who teacheth thee to profit, and 
who lead thee by the way ihou shouldst go. 

Thou art the Lord who did choose Abraham, and 
broughtest him forth out of Ur of the Chaidees. 



SECTION XII. 



RULE XIII. 

PrefiofsitiGns go~oern the objective case. 

The following are examples of the nominative case being 
used instead of the objective. " Who servest thou un- 
der ?" " Who do you speak to ?" " We are still much at 
a loss who civil power belongs to ?" " Who do you ask 
for?" *^ Associate not with those who none can speak 
well of." In ail these places it ought to be " ry/zowz." 

The prepositions to andybr are often understood, chief- 
ly before the pronouns : as, " Give me the book ;" " Get 
me some paper;" that is, " ?o me;" "/or me." " Wo 
is me;" i.e. " ?o me." "He was banished England;" 
i. e. ''''from England.*' 

1. The preposition is often separated from the relative 
which it governs : as, " Whom will you give it to ?" in- 
stead of, " To wAom will you give it?" " He is an au- 
thor whom I am much delighted with;" " The world is 
too polite to shock their authors with a truth, which gene- 
rally their booksellers are the first that inform them of." 
This is an idiom to which our languag;e is strongly incli- 
ned; it prevails in common conversation, and suits very 
well with the familiar style in writing: but the placing of 
the preposition before the relative, is more gi'aceful, as 
well as more perspicuous, and agrees much better with 
the solemn and elevated style. 



2^28 SYNTAX. 

3. Some writers separate the preposition from the 
noun or pronoun which it governs, in order to connect 
(lifterent prepositions with the same word : as, ^* To 
suppose the zodiac and planets to be efficient o/, and an- 
tecedent ^0, themselves." This construction, whether 
in the familiar or the solemn style, is always inelegant, 
and should generally be avoided. In forms of law, and 
the like, where fulness and exactness of expression must 
take place of every other consideration, it may be admit- 
ted. 

3. Different relations, and different senses, must be ex- 
pressed by different prepositions, though in conjunction 
with the same verb or adjective. Thus we say, "to con- 
verse toith a person, up.on a subject, in a house,'* &c. We 
also say, " We are disappointed of?^ thing," when we can- 
not get it, "and disappointed in it," when we have it, and 
find it does not answer our expectations. But two differ- 
ent prepositions must be improper in the same construc- 
tion, and in the same sentence ; as, " The combat between 
thirty French, against twenty English." 

In some cases it is difficult to say, to vi^hich of two 
prepositions the preference is to be given, as both are 
■used promiscuously, and custom has not decided in favour 
of either of them. We say, " Expert at," and " expert 
in a thing." " Expert in finding a remedy for his mis- 
takes;" "Expert in deception." 

When prepositions are subjoined to nouns, they are 
generally the same that are subjoined to the verbs from 
which the nouns are derived : as, " A compliance w?M," 
*' to comply nvith;'* "A disposition ^^o tyranny," "dispo- 
sed to tyraimise." 

Dr. Priestley observes, that many writers affect to sub- 
join to any word, the preposition with which it is com- 
pt.unded, or the idea of which, it implies; in order to 
point out the relation of the words, in a more distinct and 
definite manner, and to avoid the more indeterminate pre- 
positions o/ and to: but general practice, and the idiom 
of the English tongue, seem ^o oppose the innovation. 
Thus many writers say, " Averse from a thing;" " The 
abhorrence against all other sects." But other writers 
say, " Averse ?o it ;" which seems more truly English : 
" Averse^o any advice." Swift. An attention to latent 
metaphor may he pleaded in favour of the former exam- 
ple : and this is a rule oi geneisi use, in dii-ecting what; 
preposition to subjoin to a word. Thus we say, " de- 



SYNTAX. 229 

volve ufion a thing ;" " founded on natural resemblance." 
But this rule would sometimes mislead us, particularly 
where the figure has become nearly evanescent. 

" The words averse and aversion (says Dr. Campbell) 
are more properly construed with to than with y"ro7«. 

4. As an accurate and appropriate use of the preposi- 
tion is of great importance, we shall select a considerable 
number of examples of impropriety, in the application of 
this part of speech. 

First — With respect to the preposition of. 

"He is resolved of going to the Persian court;" "on 
going," Sec. 

" He was totally dependent of the Papal crown;" " on 
the Papal," &c. 

"To call of a person," and " to wait of him;" "on a 
person," &c. 

" He was eager of recommending it to his fellow citi- 
zens;" "m recommending," &c. 

Of is sometimes omitted, and sometimes inserted, after 
worthy : as, " It is worthy observation," or, "of observa- 
tion." 

But it would have been better omitted in the following 
sentences. "-The emulation, who should serve their 
country best, no longer subsists among them, but q/* who 
should obtain the most lucrative command." 

" The rain hath been falling 0/ a long time;" "falling 
a long time." 

" It is situation chiefly which decides of the fortune 
and characters of men ;" " decides the fortune," or, 
" concerning the fortune." 

"He found the greatest difficulty of writing;" "m 
writing." 

" It might have given me a greater taste of its antiqui- 
ties." A taste o/a thing implies actual enjoyment of it; 
but a tasteji^or it, implies only a capacity of enjoyment. 

" This had a much greater share of inciting him, than 
any regard after iiis father's commands;" "share m inci- 
ting," and " regard to his father's,' Sec. 

Second — With respect to the prepositions to and for. 

" You have bestowed your favours to the most deserving 
persons;" " upon the most deserving," See. 

u 



230 SYNTAX. 

" He accused the ministers for betraying the Dutch ;'' 
*' q/* having betrayed.** 

"His abhorrence to that superstitious figure;" " o; 
that," Sec. 

"A great change to the better j" ^^for the better,"- 
&c. 

"Your prejudice to my cause;" '< against.'* 

" The English were very different people then to what ' 
they are at present ;" ^'•from what," Sec. 

" In compliance to the declaration ;" " tvith^* Sec. 

"It is more than they thought for;" " thought q/V 

" There is no need for it ;" " o/it." 

For is superfluous in the phrase, " More than he knows^ 
forr 

"No discouragement for the authors to proceed;" 
" to the authors," Sec. 

"It was perfectly in compliance to some persons;" 
" with some persons." 

" The wisest princes need not think it any diminution 
to their greatness, or derogation to their sufficiency, to 
rely upon counsel:" "diminution o/"," and "derogation 
from*^ 

Third— With respect to the prepositions with and upon. 

" Reconciling himself with the king." 

" Those things which have the greatest resemblance 
with each other, frequently differ the most." 

" That such rejection should be consonant with our 
common nature." " Conformable with," Sec. 

"The history of Peter is agreeable with the sacred 
texts." 

In all the above instances, it should be, " /o," instead 
of"w/M." 

"It is a use that perhaps I should not have thought 
on;" "thought o/." 

" A greater quantity may be taken from the heap, with- 
out making any sensible alteration upon it ;" " m it." 

"Intrusted to persons on whom the parliament could 
confide;" " m whom." 

" He was made much on at Argos;" " much q/." 

" If policy can prevail upon force ;" " over force." 

"I do likewise dissent with the examiner;" '^from.'^ 



SYNTAX. 231 

Fourth — With respect to the prepositions in, from, &c. 

" They should he informed in some parts of his charac- 
ter;*' " a^ow?," or, ^^ concerning." 

"Upon such occasions as fell into their cognizance-," 
" under.** 

" That variety of factions into which we are still enga- 
ged ;" " in which." 

" To restore myself into the favour ;" " io the fa- 
vour." 

"Could he have profited from repeated experiences;'* 
" by." From seems to be superfluous after forbear : as, 
" He could not forbear from appointing the pope," &c. 

"A strict observance after times and fashions;" " o/" 
times." 

" The character which we may now value ourselves by 
drawing;*' '•^up.on drawing." 

" Neither of them shall make me swerve out of the 
path ;" ^^from the path.'* 

" Ye blind guides, which strain at a gnat, and swallow 
a camel;" it ought to be "which strain out 2^ gnat, or, 
take a gnat out of the liquor by straining it." The im- 
propriety of the preposition has wholly destroyed the 
meaning of the phrase. 

The verb to founds when used literally, is more pro- 
perly followed by the preposition on : as, " The house 
was founded on a rock." But in the metaphorical appli- 
cation, it is often better with in ; as in this sentence^^ 
" They maintained, that dominion is founded in grace.'* 
Both the sentences would be badly expressed, if these 
prepositions were transposed; though there are perhaps 
cases in which either of them would be good. 

The preposition among generally implies a number of 
things. It cannot be properly used in conjunction with 
the word every ^ which is in the singular number: as, 
" Which is found among every species of liberty ;" " The 
opinion seems to gain ground among every body;" 
" nvith.** ; 

5. The preposition Yo is made use of before nouns of 
place, when they follow verbs and participles of motion : 
as, " I went ^0 London;" "lam going to town." But 
the preposition at is generally used after the neuter verb 
to be: as, " I have been at London;*' "I was at the 
place appointed ;" " I shall be at Paris," We likewise 



2S2 SYNTAX. 

say: "He touched, arrived g/: any place." The prepo- 
sition in is set before countries, cities, and large towns: 
*' He lives in France, in London, or in Birmingham." 
But before villages, single houses, and cities which are 
in distant countries, at is used : as, "He lives at Hack- 
ney ;" " He resides at Montpelier." 

It is a matter of indifference with respect to the pro- 
noun one another, whether the preposition of be placed 
between the two parts of it, or before them both. We 
raay say, " They were jealous of one another ;" or, 
*' They were jealous one of another :" but perhaps the 
former is better. 

Participles are frequently used as prepositions: as, 
excepting, respecting, touching, concerning. " They 
were all in fault excefit or exce/iting him." 

6. The adverb like, and the adjectives worth and like, 
when they belong to preceding nouns or pronouns, govern 
.the objective case. 

Now correct and parse the following 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

We are all accountable creatures, each for hisself. 

They willingly, and of theirselves endeavoured to make 
up the difference. 

Ke laid the suspicion upon somebody, I know not who, 
in the company. 

I hope it is not I who he is displeased with. 

To poor we there is not much hope remaining. 

Does that boy know who he speaks to? Who does he 
offer such language to ? 

It was not he that they were angry with. 

What concord can subsist between those who commit 
crimes and those who abhor them ? 

The person who I travelled with, has sold the horse 
which he rode on during our journey. 

It is not I he is engaged with. 

Who did he receive that intelligence from ? 

The foltonving examples are adapted to the notes and obser- 
■vations under Rule XIII. 

1. To have no one who we heartily wish well to, and 
who we are warmly concerned for, is a deplorable state. 
He is a friend who I am highly indebted to. 



SYNTAX. 233 

2. On these occasions, the pronoun is governed by, 
and consequently agrees with the preceding word. 

They were refused entrance into, and forcibly driven 
from, the house. 

3. We are often disappointed of things, which, before 
possession, promised much enjoyment. 

I have frequently desired their company, but have al- 
ways hitherto been disappointed in that pleasure. 

4. She finds a difficulty in fixing her mind. 

Her sobriety is no derogation to her understanding. 

There was no water, and he died for thirst. 

We can fully confide on none but the truly good. 

I have no occasion of his services. 

Many have profited from good advice. 

Many ridiculous practices have been brought in vogue. 

The error was occasioned by compliance to earnest en- 
treaty. 

This is a principle in unison to our nature. 

We should entertain no prejudices to simple and rustic 
persons. 

They are at present resolved of doing their duty. 

That boy is known under the name of the Idler. 

Though conformable with custom, it is not warranta- 
ble. 

This remark is founded in truth. 

His parents think on him, and his improvements, with 
pleasure and hope. 

His excuse was admitted of by his master. 

What went ye out for to see ? 

There appears to have been a million men brought 
into the field. 

His present was accepted of by his friends. 

More than a thousand of men were destroyed. 

It is my request that he will be particular in speaking 
to the following points. 

The Saxons reduced the greater part of Britain to their 
own power. 

He liveis opposite the Royal Exchange. 

Their house is situated to the north-east side of the 
road. 

The performance was approved of by all who under- 
stood it. 

u 2 



234 SYNTAX. 

He was accused with having acted unfairly. 

She has an bhorrence to all deceitful conduct. 

They were some distance from home, when the acci- 
dent happened. 

His deportment was adapted for conciliating regard. 

My father writes me very frequently. 

Their conduct was agreeable with their profession. 

We went leisurely above stairs, and came hastily below. 

We shall write up stairs this forenoon, and down stairs 
in the afternoon. 

The politeness of the world has the same resemblance 
with benevolence, that the shadow has with the substance. 

He had a taste of such studies, and pursued them ear- 
nestly. * 

When we have had a true taste for the pleasures of vir- 
tue, we can have no relish for those of vice. 

How happy is it to know how to live at times by one's 
self, to leave one's self in regret, to find one's self again 
with pleasure ! The world is then less necessary for us. 

Civility makes its way among every kind of persons. 

5. I have been to London, after having resided a year 
at France; and I now live in Islington. 

They have just landed in Hull, and are going for Liver- 
pool. They intend to reside some time at Ireland. 

6. He writes like she does. She walks like he does. 
You behave like they do. You do that just like I do. 



SECTION XIII. 



RULE XIV. 

Kouns and pronouns^ connected by conjunction^^ must 
be in the same cases. 

RULE XIX. 

Verbs, connected by conjunctions, must be in the same 
mood and tense, and, ivhen in the subjunctive, they must 

6e m Me SAME FORM.* 

• As the neuter verb BE, and passive verbs, have two forms of the snbjnnctire fm* 
perfect as well as of the present, this rule applies to the mperfect tense of such verbs, as 
well as to the present. 



SYNTAX. 235 

I find it convenient to consider these two rules together; 
and the exercises, which are to be corrected, I shall also 
give together. 

"If thou sincerely desire^ and earnestly pursue virtue, 
she ivill assuredly be found by thee, and pro~ve a rich re- 
ward ;" " The master taught her and me to write ;" " He 
and she were school-fellows." 

A few examples of inaccuracy respecting these two 
rules, may further display their utility. " If he prefer a 
virtuous life, and is sincere in his professions, he will 
succeed;" *'if he prefers^ "To deride the miseries of 
the unhappy, is inhuman; and wanting compassion towards 
them, is unchristian ;" " and ifo wa/z^^ compassion." "The 
parliament addressed the king, and has been prorogued 
the same day;" "and was prorogued." "His wealth 
and him bid adieu to each other ;" " and /ze." " He en- 
treated us, my comrade and I, to live harmoniously;" 
" comrade and me." " My sister and her were on good 
terms ;" " and «//<?." " We often overlook the blessings 
which are in our possession, and are searching after those 
which are out of our reach :" it ought to be, " and search 
after." 

1. When the sense requires the verbs to be of different 
moods or tenses, the nominative must be repeated : the 
conjunctions will, then, connect two members of a com- 
pound sentence : as, " He cheerfully sw/zy^or^s his distress- 
ed friend, and he ivill certainly be commended for ii;" 
" They ha~ue rewarded him liberally, and they could not do 
otherwise ;" " She was proud, though she is now hum- 
ble." 

When, in the progress of a sentence, we pass from 
the affirmative to the negative form, or from the neg;ative 
to the affirmative, the subject or nominative is mostly, if 
not invariably, resamed : as, "He may return, but he 
will not continue here." "He is rich, but he is not re- 
spectable." ',* He is not rich> but he is respectable.'* 
" Though she is hi[>'h-born, beautiful, and accomplished, 
yet she is mortal, and, occasionally, she ought to be admo- 
nished of her condition." There appears to be, in gene- 
ral, equal reason for repeating the nominative, and resu- 
ming the subject, whenthecourseof the sentence is divert- 
ed by a change of the mood or tense. The following 
sentences may therefore be improved. " Anger glances 
into the breast of a wise man, but will rest only in the 
bosom of fools j" " but rests only;** or, " but it will rest 



236 SYNTAX. 

only." "Virtue is praised by many, and would be desi- 
red also, if her worth were really known;" "and she 
would." " The world begins to recede, and will soon dis- 
appear ;" " and it will.*' 

Now correct and parse the following 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

Professing regard, and to act differently, discover a base 
mind. 

Did he not tell me his fault, and entreated me to forgive 
him ? 

My brother and him are tolerable grammarians. 

If he understand the subject, and attends to it industri- 
ously, he can hardly fail of success. 

You and us enjoy many privileges. 

If a man have a hundred sheep, and one of them is gone 
astray, doth he not leave the ninety and nine, and goeth in- 
to the mountains, and seeketh that which is gone astray ? 

She and him are very unhappily connected. 

To be moderate in our views, and proceeding tempe- 
rately in the pursuit of them, is the best way to ensure 
success. 

Between him and I there is some disparity of years; but 
none between him and she. 

By forming themselves on fantastic models, and ready 
to vie with one another in the reigning follies, the young 
begin with being ridiculous, and end with being vicious 
and immoral. 

The foil onving sentences exemplify the notes and observU' 
tions under Rules XIV. and XIX. 

1. We have met with many disappointments; and, if 
life continue, shall probably meet with many more. 

Rank may confer influence, but will not necessarily pro- 
duce virtue. 

He does not want courage, but is defective in sensi- 
bility. 

These people have indeed acquired great riches, but 
do not command esteem. 

Our season of improvement is short; and, whether used 
or not, will soon pass away. 



; »S. /.. «if»<«|P5?73A*? " 



SYNTAX. 237 

He might have been happy, and is now fully convinced 
of it. 

Learning strengthens the mind; and, if properly ap- 
plied, will improve our morals too. 



SECTION XIV. 



RULE XV. 

When two or more noiins^ or nouns and fironouns of the 
singular number^ are connected by a copulative conjunct 
tion^ exfireased or understood^ they must have verb&snoujis^ 
and fironouns^ in the plural number to agree with them; 
but when they are connected by a i>is3UNCTI\f. conjunction, 
they must ha-ue -vcrbs^ nvuns^ and fironouns of the singular 
number to agree with them. 

This rule is often violated; some instances of which 
are annexe<l. " And so was also James and John, the 
sons of Zebedee, who were partners with Simon ;" '* and 
so were also." " All joy, tranquillity, and peace, even 
for ever and ever, doth dwell ;" " dwell for ever." " By 
whose power all good and evil is distributed ;" " are dis- 
tributed." " Their love, and their hatred, and their envy, 
is now perished ;*' " are perished." " The thoughtless 
and intemperate enjoymentof pleasure, the criminal abuse 
of it, and the forgetfulness of our being accountable crea- 
tures, obliterates every serious thought of the proper bu- 
siness of life, and effaces the sense of religion and of 
God." It ought to be, " obliterate" and " efface.^* 

I. When the nouns are neai'I'y related, or scarcely dis- 
tinguishable in sense, and sometimes even when they are 
very different, some authors have thought it allowable to 
put the Verbs, nouns, and pronouns, in the singular num- 
ber: as, "Tranquillity and peace dwells there ;" " Igno- 
rance and negligence has produced the effect;" "The 
discomfiture and slaughter was very great." But it is evi- 
dently contrary to the first principles of grammar, to con- 
sider two distinct ideas as one, however nice may be their 



23« SYNTAX. 

shades of difference : and if there is no difference, one 
of them must be superfluous, and ought to.be rejected. 

To support the above construction, it is said, that the 
verb may be understood as applied to each of the prece- 
ding terms ; as in the following example ; " Sand, and salt, 
and a mass of iron, is easier to bear than a man without 
understanding." But besides the confusion, and the lati- 
tude of application, which such a construction would in- 
troduce, it appears to be more proper and analogical, in 
cases where the verb is intended to be applied to any one 
of the terms, to make use of the disjunctive conjunction, 
which grammatically refers the verb to one or other of the 
preceding terms in a separate view. To preserve the 
distinctive uses of the copulative and disjunctive conjunc- 
tions, would render the rules precise, consistent, and in- 
telligible. Dr. Blair observes, that " two or more sub- 
stantives, joined by a copulative, must always require the 
verb or pronoun to which they refer, to be placed in the 
plural number :'* and this is the general sentiment of Eng- 
lish grammarians. 

2. In many complex sentences, it is difficult for learn- 
ers to determine, whether one or thore of the clauses 
are to be considered as the nominative case ; and conse- 
quently, whether the verb should be in the singular or 
the plural number, i will, therefore, set down a number 
of varied examples of this nature, which may serve as 
some government to you, with respect to sentences of a 
similar construction. " Prosperity, with humility, renders 
its possessor truly amiable." " The ship, with all her 
furniture, nvas destroyed." " Not only his estate, his re- 
putation too has suffered by his misconduct." " The 
general also, in conjunction with the officers, has applied 
for redress." " He cannot be justified ; for it is true, 
that the prince as well as the people, was blame-worthy." 
''The king, with his life-guard, has ju^t passed. through 
the village." " In the mutual Influence of body and soul, 
there is a wisdom, a wonderful wisdom, which we cannot 
fathom." " Virtue, honour, nay, even self-interest, cotz- 
«/?fre to recomriiend the measure." "Patriotism, moral- 
ity, every public and private consideration, demand, our 
submission to just and lawful government.'* ^} Nothing 
delights me so much as the works of nature.? 

In support of such forms of expression as the following, 
we see the authority of Hume, Priestley, and other writers; 
and I annex them for your consideration. " A long course 



SYNTAX. 239 

of time, wtih a variety of accidents and circumstances, are 
requisite to produce those revolutions." '* The king, with 
the lords and commons, form an excellent frame of go- 
vernment." "The side A, with the sides B and C, com- 
pose the triangle " " The fire communicated itself to the 
bed, which, with the furniture of the room, and a valuable 
library, nvere all entirely consumed." It is, however, 
proper to observe, that these modes of expression do not 
appear to be warranted by the just principles of construc- 
tion. The words, "A long course of time," "The king," 
*' The side A," and "which," are the true nominatives 
to the respective verbs. In the last example, the word 
all should be expunged. As the preposition wfr/z governs 
the objective case, in English; and if translated into Latin, 
would govern the ablative case, it is manifest, that the 
clauses following with^ in the preceding sentences, cannot 
form any part of the nominative case. They cannot be at 
the same time in the objective and the nominative cases. 
The following sentence is grammatically formed ; and may 
serve to explain the others. " The lords and commons 
are essential branches of the British constitution ; the 
king, with them, forms an excellent frame of govern- 
ment."* 

The following sentences are variations from the latter 
part of the rule. " A man may see a metaphor or an alle- 
gory in a picture, as well as read them in a description ;" 
" read ir." " Neither character nor dialogue were yet 
understood ;" " was yet." " It must indeed be confessed, 
that a lampoon or a satirej do not carry in them robbery 
Qr murder;" '^ does not carry in it." "Death, or some 
worse misfortune, soon divide them." It ought to be " di- 
vides.*' 

3. When singular pronouns, or a noun and pronoun, of 
different persons, are disjunctively connected, the verb 
must agree with that person which is placed nearest to it : 
as, " I or thou art to blame ;" " Thou or I am in fault ;" 

^^I, or thou, or he, zs the author of it;" "George or I 
am the person." But it would be better to say ; " Either 
I am to blame, or thou art," 8cc. 

4. When a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun, 
or pronoun, and a plural one. the verb is made to agree 
with the plural noun and pronoun: as, "Neither poverty 

* Thougti the construction will not admit of a plural verb, the sentence would cer- 
tainly stand better thus : "The king, the lords, and the commons, /orm an excellent 
constitution." 



,240 SYNTAX. 

nor riches ivere injurious to him." " I or they nvere offend- 
ed by it." But in this case, the plural noun or pronoun, 
when it can conveniently be done, should be placed next 
to the verb. 

You will now correct and parse the following 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 
Idleness and ignorance is the parent of many vices. 
Wisdom, virtue, happiness, dwells with the golden me- 
diocrity. 

In unity consists the welfare and security of every so- 
ciety. 

Time and tide waits for no man. 

His politeness and good disposition was, on failure of 
their effect, entirely changed. 

Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains. 
Humility and knowledge, with poor apparel, excels 
pride and ignorance under costly attire. 

The planetary system- boundless space, and the im- 
mense ocean, affects the mind with sensations of astonish- 
ment. 

Humility and love, whatever obscurities may involve 
religious tenets, constitutes the essence of true religion. 
Religion and virtue, our best support and highest ho- 
nour, confers on the mind principles of noble indepen- 
dence. 

What signifies the counsel and care of preceptor.s, when 
youth think they have no need of assistance ? 

Man's happiness, or misery, are, in a great measure, 
put into his own hands. 

Man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which 
move merely as they are moved. 

Despise no infirmity of mind or body, nor any condition 
of life ; for they are, perhaps, to be your own lot. 

Speaking impatiently to servants, or any thing that be- 
trays unkindness or ill-humour, are certainly criminal. 

There are many faults in spelling, which neither ana- 
logy nor pronunciation justify. 

When sickness, infirmity or reverse of fortune, affect 
us. the sincerity of friendship is proved. 

Let it be remembered, that it is not the uttering, or 
the hearing of certain words, that constitute the worship 
of the Almighty. 



SYNTAX. 241 

A tart reply, a proneness to rebuke, or a captious and 
contradictious spirit, are capable of embittering domestic 
life, and of setting friends at variance. 



The examfiles whichfolloiv^ are suited to the notes and ob 
servations under Rule XV. 



1. Much does human pride and self-complacency rie- 
quire correction. 

Luxurious livin-;, and high pleasures, begets a languor 
and satiety that destroys all enjoyment. 

Pride and self-sufficiency stifles sentiments of depen- 
dence on our Creator: levity and attachment to worldly 
pleasures, destroys the sense of gratitude to him. 

2. Every man and woman were numbered.* 

Good order in our affairs, not mean savings, produce 
great profits. 

The following treatise, together with those that accom- 
pany it, were written, many years ago, for my own private 
satisfaction. 

That great senator, in concert with several other emi- 
nent persons, were the projectors of the revolution. 

The religion of these people, as well as their customs 
and manners, were strangely misrepresented. 

Virtue, joined to knowledge and wealth, confer great 



• The copulatire conjunction, in this instance, makes no difference with regard to 
the verb. All the men and women are referred to separately and individually. The 
verb must therefore have the same construction as it has in the sentence : " Every one 
of the men and women tvat numbered." Wliatever number of nouns may be connect- 
ed by a conjunction with the pronoun every, this pronoun is as applicable co the whole 
mass of them, as to any one of the nouns ; and therefore the verb is correctly put in 
the singular number, and refers to the whole separately and individually considered. In 
short, (his pronoun so entirely coalesces with the nouns, however numerous and unit- 
ed, that it imparts its peculiar nature to them, and makes the whole number corres- 
pond together, and require a similar construction. 

The subject may be fariher illustrated and confirmed by the following examples. 
" Every man, woman, and child, was preserved from the devouring element ;" " Every 
good gift, and e«ery perfect gift, is from above, and comeih down from the Fjtther of 
lights :" James i. 17.; " It is the original cause of everj' reproach and distress which has 
attended the government ;'* Junius; " To «hostr that have li%'ed long togetiier, every 
thing heard, and every thing seen. rtcaUs soine pleasure, communicateil, or some benefit 
conferre<! ; some petty quarrel, or some slight endearment." Dr. Johnson. — This con- 
struction forms an exception to thefifteentli rule of SyntHX ; whii;2i was also iilustratefl 
in Conversation XIII. Another exception lothis rule is, when a copuLntive conjunction 
connects two or more nouns, &c. which refer to the same person or thing: as, " I'hat 
able scholar and critic has been eminently useful to the cause of religion.*' 



X 



243 SYNTAX. 

influence and respectability. But knowledge, with wealth 
united, if virtue is wanting, have a very limited influence, 
and are often despised. 

That superficial scholar and critic, like some renowned 
critics of our own, have furnished most decisive proofs, 
that they knew not the characters of the Hebrew lan- 
guage. 

The buildings of the institution have been enbrgcd; 
the expense of which, added to the increased price of 
provisions, render it necessary to advance the terms of 
admission. 

One, added to nineteen, make twenty^ 

What black despair, what horror, fills the mind ! 

Thou, and the gardener, and the huntsman, must share 
the blame of this business amongst them. 

My sister and I, as well as my brother, are daily em- 
ployed in their respective occupations. 

3. Either thou or I art greatly mistaken, in our judg- 
ment on this subject. 

I or thou am the person who must undertake the busi- 
ness proposed. 

4. Both of the scholars, or one of them at least, was 
present at the transaction. 

Some part of the ship and cargo were recovered; but 
neither the sailors nor the captain, was saved. 

Whether one person or more was concerned in the bu- 
siness, does not yet appear. 

The cares of this life, or the deceitfulness of riches, 
has choked the seeds of virtue in many a promising mind> 



SECTION XV. 

RULE XVI. 

^Vouns and^fiTonouns in apfiqsition^ mufit be in the same 
liase. 

The following are instances of the violation of this rule 5 
•which you must correct and parse. 

They slew Varus, he that was mentioned before. 



SYNTAX. 24-J 

i saw John and his sister, they who came to your house. 

We must respect the good and the wise, they who en* 
deavour to enlighten us, and make us better. 

I sent the book to my brother's house, him whom yoi4 
saw here. 

My two friends gave me this present, them that we 
visited yesterday. 

RULE, XVII. 

TVhen a direct address is made, the noun or fironoun is in 
the nominative case independent. 

In Conversation XIV, I made all the remarks, respect- 
ing this rule, that are necessary. 

RULE XVIII. 

The fiassive fiarticiple, unconnected ivith an auxiliary ^ 
belongs, like an adjective^ to some noun or pronoun ex- 
pressed or understood. 

This rule, so far as it respects the syntax of the English 
language, needs no remark. 

RULE XX. 

The iyijinitive mood may be goverfied by a verb, noun^ 
adjective, or participle. 

The verbs which require those that follow them in the 
infinitive mood, to be used without the sign to, are, make, 
need, see, bid, dare, feel, hear, let; and sometimes a few 
others. 

This irregularity, however, extends only to active or 
neuter verbs; for all the verbs above mentioned, when 
made passive, require the to to be used before the follow- 
ing verb in the infinitive mood : as, " He was seen to go ;'" 
" He was heard to speak ;" " They were bidden to be on 
their guard." 

The infinitive mood has been improperly used in the 
following sentences : " I am not like other men, to envy 
the talents Icannot reach.". It should be, ^' rjho envy the 
talents they cannot reach ;" or, '^ I do not, like other men, 
envy the talents / cannot reach.'* %" Grammarians have 
<lenied, or at least doubted, them to be genuine ;" "doubt- 
ed that they were genuine." "That all our doings may 
be, ordered by thy governance, /o do always what is 
righteous in thy sight ;""'' Mo:^ rje may always do,'* he. 

When as followsv«0) it sometimes governs the infinitive 
mood I a&5 " I will ejudeavour to explain this subject so c« 



244 SYNTAX. 

to make you understand it." But sometinnes, when the in- 
finitive mood follows as, preceded by «o, it is governed by 
another verb understood: as, *♦ He desired nothing so 
much as to see his friends ;" that is, " as he desired to see 
his friends." And it is frequently governed in the same 
manner, when it follows than^ after a comparison : as, " He 
desired nothing more than to see his friends;" that is, 
" than he desired to see," &c. 

The infinitive mood has much of the nature of a sub- 
stantive, expressing the action itself which the verb signi- 
iies, as the participle has the nature of an adjective. Thus 
the infinitive mood does the ofBce of a substantive in dif- 
ferent cases : in the nominative : as, *' To ptay is plea- 
sant :" in the objective : as, " Boys love to filay ;" " For 
to will is present to me; but to perform that which is 
good, I find not." 

The infinitive mood is often made absolute, or used inde- 
pendently on the rest of the sentence, supplying the place 
of the conjunction Ma^with the potential mood : as, " To 
confess the truth, I was in fault ;" " To begin with the 
first ;" " To proceed ;" " To conclude ;" that is, " That I 
may confess," &c. 

The sign ^o, signifying in order tOy was anciently pre*- 
ceded by^ar ; as, " What went he out for to see .?** The 
word ybr before the infinitive, is now, in almost every case, 
obsolete. It is, however, sUll used, if the subject of the 
affirmation intervenes between the preposition and the 
verb ; as, '''•for holy persons to be humble, is as hard, as 
for a prince to submit himself to be guided by tutors," 

Now correct and parse the following 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

It is better live on a little, than outlive a great deal. 

You ought not walk too hastily. 

I wish him not wrestle with his happiness. 

1 need not to solicit him to do a kind action. 

I dare not to proceed so hastily, lest I should give oU 
fence. 

I have seen some young persons to conduct themselves 
very discreetly. 

It is a great support to virtue, when we see a good mind 
to maintain its patience and tranquillity, under injuries and 
affliction, and to cordially forgive its oppressors. 



I 



SYNTAX. 245 

It is the differenee of their conduct, which makes us to 
approve the one, and to reject the other. 

We should not be like many persons, to depreciate the 
virtues we do not possess. 

To see young persons who are courted by health and 
pleasure, to resist all the allurements of vice, and to stea- 
dily pursue virtue and knowledge, is cheering and delight- 
ful to every good mind. 

They acted with so much reserve, that some persons 
doubted them tt) be sincere. 

And the multitude wondered, when they saw the lame 
to walk, and the blind to see, 

RULE XXI. 

v'^ni/ intransitive^ fiassive^ or neuter verb, must have the 
same case after it as before it^ ivhen both words refer to^ and 
signify ^ the same thing. 

If you recollect what I said under this rule in Conver- 
sation XX, you can correct and parse the following 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

Well may you be afraid ; it is him indeed. 

I would act the same part if I were him, or in his situa- 
tion. 

Search the Scriptures; for in them ye think ye have 
eternal life : and they are them which testify of me. 

Be composed : it is me : you have ho cause for fear. 

I cannot tell who has befriended me, unless it is him 
from whom I have received many benefits. 

I know not whether it were them who conducted the 
business; but I am certain it was not hira. 

He so much resembled my brother, that, at first sight, I 
took it to be he. 

After all their professions, is it possible to be them ? 
f It could not have been her, for she always behaves dis- 
creetly. 

If it was not him, who do you imagine it to have been ? 

Who do you think him to be! 

WEiom do the people say that we are ? 



u4. Ai 



■^<^ SYNTAX, 



SECTION XVI. 



RULE XXII. 

The infinitive mood^ or fiart of a sentence^ is sometimes 
the subject of a -verb^ and is, therefore, its nominative. 

When several phrases, connected by a copulative con- 
junction, expressed or understood, are made nominatives 
to a verb, the verb must be plural : as, " To be tempe- 
rate in eating and drinking, to use exercise in the open air, 
and to preserve the mind free from tumultuous emotions, 
are the best preservations af health." 

But when the whole sentence forms but one nominative, 
conveying a unity of idea, the verb must be singular: as, 
" That warm climates should accelerate the growth of the 
human body, and shorten its duration, is very reasonable 
to believe." 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

To do unto all men, as we would, that they, in similar 
circumstances, should do unto us, constitute the great 
principle of virtue. 

From a fear of the world's censure, to be ashamed of 
the practice of precepts, which the heart approves and 
embraces, mark a feeble and imperfect character. 

The erroneous opinions which we form concerning hap- 
piness and misery, gives rise to all the mistaken and dan- 
gerous passions that embroils our life. 

To live soberly, righteously, and piously, are required 
of all men. 

That it is our duty to promote the purity of our minds 
and bodies, to be just and kind to our fellow-creatures, 
and to be pious and faithful to Him that made us, admit 
not of any doubt in a rational and well-informed mind. 

To be of a pure and humble mind, to exercise benevo- 
lence towards others, to cultivate piety towards God, is the 
sure means of becoming peaceful and happy. 

It is an important truth, that religion, vital religion, 
the religion of the heart, are the most powerful auxi- 




SYNTAX. 247 

liaries of reason, in waging war with the passions, and 
promoting that sweet composure which constitute the 
peace of God. 

The possession of our senses entire, of our limbs unin- 
jured, of our sound understanding, of friends and com- 
panions, are often overlooked; though it would be the 
ultimate wish of many, who, as far as we can judge, de- 
serves it as much as ourselves. 

All that make a figure on the great theatre of the world| 
the employments of the busy, the enterprises of the am- 
bitious, and the exploits of the warlike ; the virtues which 
forms the happiness, and the crimes which occasions the 
misery of mankind ; originates in that silent and secret 
recess of thought, which are hidden from every human 
eye. 

RULE XXIII. 

When a noun or pronoun has no verb to agree with it, 
but is filaced before a fiarticifile, independently on the rest 
of the sentence.^ it ?nust be in the nominative case absolute. 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 
Solomon was of this mind ; and I have no doubt he made 
as wise and true proverbs, as any body has done since ; 
him only excepted, who was a much greater and wiser 
man than Solomon. 

Him destroy'd, 

Or won to what may work his utter loss, 
All this will soon follow. 



-Whose gray top 



Shall tremble, him descending. 



SECTION xvii. 



I have, now taken \ review of all the rules which I 
gave in the Conversations, and which are sufficient for the 



248 SYNTAX. 

parsing of any sentence, and have made, under each^ all 
the remarks which were necessary to enable you to cor- 
rect such exercises m false syntaa:^ as violate those rules. 
There remain yet to be given, a few rules, which you 
will find useful, and, indeed, necessary, in correcting many 
bad constructions, to which the rules for parsing merely, 
do not apply, or are not sufficiently explicit. I will, there- 
fore, proceed to give you the following 

SUPPLEMENTARY RULES AND REMARKS, 

WITH 

APPROPRIATE EXERCISES. 

RULE I. 

A noun of multitude^ or sig7iifying many, may have a 
verb or fironoini agreeing tvith it, either of the singular or 
plural number ; yet not vjithout regard to the import of the 
loord, as conveying ti?iity or plurality of idea ; as, '"The 
nieeiing was larp;e ;" '' The parliament is dissolved ;" *' The 
nation is powerful;*' "My people do not consider: they 
have not known me;" " IMie multitude eagerly pursue 
pleasure, as their chief good;" " The council w^?'^ divided 
in their sentiments." 

We ought to consider whether the term immediately 
suggests the idea of the number it represents, or whether 
it exhibits to the mind the idea of the whole as one thing. 
In the former case, the verb ought to be plural ; in the 
latter, it ought to be singular. Thus, it seems improper 
to say, " The peasantry goes barefoot, and the middle sort 
?nakcs use of wooden shoes." It would be better to say, 
'' The peasantry go barefoot, and the middle sort make 
use," Sec. ; because the idea in both these cases, is that of 
a number. On the contrary, there is a harshness in the 
following sentences, in which nouris of number have verbs 
plural: because the ideas they represent "^seem not to be 
sufficiently divided in the mind. " The court of Rome 
nvere not without solicitude." " The house of commons 
were of small weight." "The house of lords ivere so 
much influenced by these reasons." " Stephen's party 
tvere entirely broken up by the captivity of their leader.'* 
" An army of twenty-four thousand nvere assembled.'* 
" What reason have the church of Rome for pr(l:eeding 
in this manner?" "There is indeed no constitution |5o 



SYNTAX. 249 

tame and careless of their own defence." " All the vir- 
tues of mankind are to be counted upon a few fingers, but 
his follies and vices are innumerable.'* Is not mankind in 
this place a noun of multitude, and such as requires the 
pronoun referring to it, to be in the plural number their? 

When a noun of multitude is preceded by a definiiive 
word, which clearly limits the sense to an aggregate with 
an idea of unity, it requires a verb and pronoun to agree 
with it in the singular number : as, " »^ company of troops 
was detached : a troop of cavalry ivas raised ; this people 
is become a great nation ; that assembly nvas numerous ; 
a great number of men and women ivas collected." 

On many occasions, where a noun of multitude is used, 
it is very difficult to decide, whether the verb should be 
in the singular, or in the plural number: and this difficul- 
ty has induced some grammarians to cut the knot at once, 
and to assert that every noun of multitude, as it consti- 
tutes one aggregate of many particulars, must always be 
considered as conveying the idea of unity ; and that con- 
sequently, the verb and pronoun agreeing with it, can- 
not, with propriety^ be ever used in the plural number. 
This opinion appears to be not well considered; it is con- 
trary to the established practice of the best writers of the 
language, and against the rules of the most respectable 
grammarians. Some nouns of multitude certainly convey 
to the mind an idea of plurality, others, that of a whole 
as one thing, and others again sometimes that of unity, 
and sometimes that of plurality. On this ground, it is 
warrantable, and consistent with the nature of things, to 
apply a plural verb and pronoun to the one class, and a 
singular verb and pronoun, to the other. We shall imme- 
diately perceive the impropriety of the following con- 
structions : " The clergy has withdrawn itself from the 
temporal t:ourts :'* " The nobility, exclusive of its capa- 
city as hereditary counsellor of the crown, forms the /«V- 
lar to support the throne :'* " The commonalty is divided 
into several degrees :" " The people of England is pos- 
sessed of super-eminent privileges;" "The multitude 
was clamorous for the object of its affections ;'* "The as- 
sembly ivas divided in its o/iinion y* " The fleet was all 
dispersed, and some of it was taken.'* — In all these in- 
stances, as well as in many others, the plural verb and 
pronoun should be used; and if the reader will apply 
them, as he looks over the sentences a second time, he will 



250 SYNTAX. 

perceive the propriety and effect of a change in the con- 
struction. 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

The people rejoices in, that which should give it sor- 
row. 

The flock, and not the fleece, are, or ought to be, the 
objects of the shepherd's care. 

The court have just ended, after having sat througli the 
trial of a very long cause. 

The crowd were so great, that the judges with difficul- 
ty made their way through them. 

The corporation of York consist of a mayor, aldermen, 
and a common council. 

The British parliament are composed of king, lords, 
and commons. 

When the nation complain, the rulers should listen to 
their voice. 

In the days of youth, the multitude eagerly pursues plea- 
sures as its chief good. 

The church have no power to inflict corporal punish- 
ment. 

The fleet were seen sailing up the channel. 

The regiment consist of a thousand men. 

The meeting have established several salutary regula- 
tions. 

The council was not unatiimous, and it separated with- 
out coming to any determination. 

The fleet is all arrived and moored in safety. 

This people draweth near to me with their mouth, and 
honoureth me with their lips, but their heart is far from 
me. 

The committee was divided in its sentiments, and it has 
referred the business to the general meeting. 

The committee were very full when this point was de- 
cided; and their judgment has not been called in ques- 
tion. 

Why do this generation wish for greater evidenc^,when 
so much is already given. 

The remnant of the people v/ere persecuted with great 
severity. 

Never were any people so much infatuated as the Jew- 
ish nation. 

The shoal of herrings were of an immense extent. 



SYNTAX. 2-51 

No society are chargeable with the disapproved miscon- 
duct of particular members. 



SECTION XVIII. 



RULE U. 

To determine ivhat case a noun^ or pronoun^ must be ifiy 
taken it follonus the conjunctions but, than, aw^/ as, attend 
ivell to the sense^ and sufifily the ellifisis : as, 

*' Thou art wiser than I ;" that is, " than I am." " They 
loved him more than me ;" i. e. " more than they loved 
me." " The sentiment is well expressed by Plato, but 
much better by Solomon than him;*' that is, " than it is 
expressed by him." 

The propriety or impropriety of many phrases, in the 
preceding as well as in some other forms, may be disco- 
vered, by supplying the words that are not expressed ; 
which will be evident from the following instances of er- 
roneous construction. *' He can read better than me." 
" He is as good as her.'* *' Whether I be present or no." 
" Who did this ? Me." By supplying the words under- 
stood in each of these phrases, their impropriety and go- 
verning rule will appear: as, "Better than I can read;" 
" As good as she is ;" " Present or not present ;" " I did 
it." 

1. By not attending to this rule, many errors have been 
committed: a number of which is subjoined, as a fur- 
ther caution and direction to you. "Thou art a much 
greater loser than me by his death." " She suffers hourly 
more than me." " We contributed a third more than the 
Dutch, who were obliged to the same proportion more 
than us." "King Charles, and more than him, the duke 
and the popish faction, were at liberty to form new 
schemes." " The drift of all his sermons Avas, to prepare 
the Jews for the'r;pceptiori of a prophet mightier than him, 
and whose shoes he was not worthy to bear." " It was 
not the work of so eminent an author, as him to whom it 
was first imputed." "A stone is heavy, and the sand is 



S52 SYNTAX. 

weighty ; but a fool*s wrath is heavier than them both." 
<* If the king give us leave, we may perform the office as 
well as them that do." In these passages it ought to be, 
" JT, we, he^ they^ respectively." 

When the relative who immediately follows than, \t% 
must be in the objective case : as, Alfred, than whom, a ' 
greater king never reigned,*' &c. " Beelzebub, than 
whom, Satan excepted, none higher sat,'* &c. It is re- 
markable that in such instances, if the personal pronoun 
were used, it would be in the nominative case : as, " A 
greater king never reigned than Ae," that is, " than he 
•was.** " Beelzebub, than he," &c. ; that is, " than he sat.'* 
The phrase than whom, is, however, avoided by the best 
modern writers. 

The following sentences, " I saw nobody but him ;'* 
**No person but he was present;** "More persons than 
they saw the action." " The secret was communicated to 
more men than him ;** " This trade enriched some people 
more than them ;'* may be explained, on the principle of 
supplying the ellipsis, in the following manner. In the 
first, we might say, " I saw nobody, but / saw him ;** or, 
" I saw nobody, but him / saw ;** in the second, *' None 
was present, but he wan firesent ;'* in the third, "More 
persons than they wei-e, saw the action," or, " More than 
these fiersons were, saw the action ;" in the fourth, " The 
secret was communicated to more persons than to him ;*' 
in the fifth, " This trade enriched some people more than 
it enriched \\iG^m.** — The supply of the ellipsis certainly 
gives an uncouth appearance to these sentences: but this 
circumstance forms no solid objection to the truth of the 
principle. 

Now correct and parse the following 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

In some respects, we have had as many advantages a§ 
them; but in the article of a good library, they have had 
a greater privilege than us. % 

The undertaking was much better executed by his bro- 
ther than he. 

They are much greater gainers than me by this unex- 
pected event. 

They know how to write as well as him; but he is a 
much better grammarian than them. 



SYNTAX. 253 

Though she is not so learned as him, she is as much be- 
loved and respected. 

These people, though they possess more shining qua- 
lities, are not so proud as him, nor so vain as her. 

The follonving examples are adafited to the notes and ob- 
servations under Rule IV. 

1. Who betrayed her companion ? Not me. 

Who revealed the secrets he ought to have concealed? 
Not him. 

Who related falsehoods to screen herself, and to bring 
an odium upon others ? not me ; it was her. 

There is but one in fault, and that is me. 

Whether he will be learned or no, must depend on his 
application. 

Charles XII. of Sweden, than who a more courageous 
persoa never lived, appears to have been destitute of the 
lender sensibilities of nature. 

Salmasius (a more learned man than him has seldom ap- 
peared) was not happy at the close of life. 



SECTION XIX. 



The observance of the rule which I am about to give 
you now, iiiA'^olves an accurate knowledge of all the moods 
and tenses of the verbs ; and before you can understand 
it thoroughly, you must particularly recollect the appro- 
priate use of all the tenses. 

RULE III. 

In the use of words and fiHtases which^ in point oj" time^ 
relate, to each other ^ a due regard to that relation should be 
observed. ; ^' 

Instead of saykjg, "The Lord hath given, attd the Loixl 
hath taken awuy ;'' we should say, "The Lord ^a-ya-, and 
the Lord hath taken awaj^" Instead .of, '" I r^memd^r the 

Y 



254 SYNTAX. 

family more than twenty years ;'* it should be, "I have 
remembered the family more than twenty years.*' 

It is not easy, in all cases, to give particular rules, for 
the management of words and phrases which relate to one 
another, so that they may be proper and consistent. The 
best rule that can be given, is this very general one, " To 
observe what the sense necessarily requii-es." It may, 
however, be of use, to exhibit a number of instances, in 
which the construction is irregular. The following are 
of this nature. 

" I have completed the work more than a week ago ;" 
"I have seen the coronation at Westminster last sum- 
mer." These sentences should have been; " I comfileted 
the work," &c. : " I sanv the coronation," &c. : because 
the perfect tense extends to a past period, which imme- 
diately precedes, or includes, the present time ; and it can- 
not, therefore, apply to the time of a week ago, or to last 
midsummer. 

" Charles has lately finished the reading of Henry's 
History of England:" it should be, "Charles lately 
Jinished,*' &c. ; the word lately referring to a time com- 
pletely past, without any allusion to the present time. 

" They have resided in Italy, till a few months ago, for 
the benefit of their health :" It should be, " they re^ 
sided in Italy," &c. 

"This mode of expression has been formerly much ad- 
mired:" it ought to be, "was formerly much admired." 
" The business is not done here, in the manner in 
which it has been done, some years since in Germany :" 
it should be, "in the manner in which it ivas done," Ecc. 
" I will pay the vows which my lips have uttered, when 
I was in trouble :" it ought to be, " which my lips utter- 
ed^' &c. 

"I have in my youth, trifled with health ; and old age 
now prematurely assails me :" it should be, " In my youth 
I trijled with health," &c. 

The five examples last mentioned, are. corrected on the 

same principle that the preceding examples are corrected. 

" Charles is grown considerably since I have seen him 

the last time :" this sentence ought to be, " Charles has 

grown considerably, since I saw him the last time." 

" Payment was, at length, made, but no reason assigned 
for its being so long postponed :" it should be, " for its 
/mx^m^'^ee;? so long postponed." 



SYNTAX. 255 

" He became so meek and submissive, that to be in the 
house as one of the hired servants, was now the utmost 
-of his wishes:'* it ought to be, "was then the utmost of 
his wishes." 

" They were arrived an hour before we reached the 
city :" it ought to be, " They had arrived^* &c. ; be- 
cause arrived, in this phrase, denotes an event not only 
past, but prior to the time referred to, by the words, 
" reached the city." 

" The workmen will finish the business at midsummer." 
According to the meaning, it ought to be, " The workmen 
wUl have Jinished" Sec. 

"All the present family have been much indebted to 
their great and honourable ancestor :'* it should be, " are 
much indebted." 

" This curious piece of workmanship was preserved 
and shown to strangers for more than fifty years past :" 
it ought to be, " has beenfireserved, and been shonvn" &c. 

" I had rather walk than ride : " it should be, " I luould 
rather walk than ride." 

" On the morrow, because he shuuld have known the 
certainty wherefore he was accused of the Jews, he loosed 
him :" it ought to be, " because he would know ;" or ra~ 
ther, " being willing to know.** 

" The blind man said unto him, Lord, that I might re- 
eeive my sight ;" " If by any means I might attain unto 
the resurrection of the dead:" in both these places, may 
would have been better than anight. 

^' I feared that I should have lost the parcel, before I 
arrived at the city :" it should be, <- 1 feared that I should 
lose,'* &c. 

" It would have afforded me no satisfaction, if I could 
perform it:" it ought to be, " If I could have performed 
it;" or, "It would afford me no satisfaction, if I could 
{lerform it." 

To preserve consistency in the time of verbs, and of 
words and phrases, we must recollect that, in the subjunc- 
tive mood, the present and the imperfect tenses often carry 
with them a future sense; and that the auxiliaries should 
and wow/rf, in the imperfect time, are used to express the 
present and future, as well as the past. 

l.With regard to verbs in the infinitive mood, the 
practice of many writers, and some even of our most re- 
spectable writers, appears to be erroneous. They seem 
not to advert to the trUe principles, whicjii influence the 



256 SYNTAX. 

different tenses of this mood. I shall produce some rules 
on the subject, which, I presume, will be found perspicu- 
ous and accurate. '' All verbs, expressive of hope, desire, 
intention, or command, must invariably be followed by the 
present, and not the perfect of the infinitive.'* ''The 
l^st week 1 intended to /lavewritte}!,'^ is a very common 
phrase ; the infinitive being in the past time, as well as the 
verb which it follows. But it is evidently wrong: for 
how long soever it now is since I thought of writing, " to 
"write" was then present to me : and must still be consi- 
dered as present, when I bring back that time, and the 
thoughts of it. It ought, therefore, to be; "The last 
week, I intended to write."* 

The following sentence is properly and analogically ex- 
pressed ; "I found him better than I expected to find 
him." " Expected to have found him^'" is irreconcilable 
to grammar and to sense. Every person would perceive 
an error in this expression ; " It is long since I command- 
ed him to have done it:" yet, " expected to have found,'* 
is not better. It is as clear, that the finding must be pos- 
terior to the QKpectation, ao that the obedience must be 
posterior to the command. 

Some writers on grammar contend, that the sentence, 
" I intend to have written," is correct and grammatical ; 
because it simply denotes, as they assert, the speaker's 
intention to be hereafter in possession of the finished ac- 
tion of writing. But to this reasoning the following an- 
swers may be given: that the phrase, "to have written," 
is stated, in English grammar, as the established past tense 
of the infinitive mood ; that it is as incontrovertibly the 
past tense of the infinitive in English, as scripsisse is the 
past tense of the infinitive in Latin ; that no writers can 
be warranted in taking such liberties with the language, 
as to contradict its plainest rules, for the sake of support- 
ing an hypothesis; that these writers might, on their own 
principles, and with equal propriety, contend Mtiat the 
phrase, " I intend having ivritteuy" is proper and gram- 
matical ; and that, by admitting such violations of establish- 
ed grammatical distinctions, confusion would be intro- 
duced, the language would be disorganized, and the most 
eccentric systems of grammar might be advanced, and 
plausibly supported. — In short, the phrase, " I intend to 
have written," appear to involve the following absurdity : 
"I intend to produce hereafter an action or event, .which 
has been already completed, " 



SYNTAX. ^ar 

As the verbs to desire and to wis/i^ are nearly related, 
you may naturally suppose, from the rule just laid down, 
that the latter verb, like the former, must invariably be 
followed by the present of the infinitive. But if you re- 
flect, that the act o( desiring always refers to the future; 
and that the act of wishing- refers sometimes to the past, 
as well as sometimes to the future; you will perceive the 
distinction between them, and that, consequently, the fol- 
lowing modes of expression are strictly justifiable: "I 
wished that I had written sooner :" " I wished to have 
written sooner :" and you will be perfectly satisfied, that 
the following phrases must be improper: " I desire that 
I had written sooner;" *' I desire to have written 
sooner."* 

Having considered and explained the special rule, re- 
specting the government of verbs expressive of hope, de- 
sire, intention, or command, I shall proceed to state and 
elucidate the general rule, on the subject of verbs in the 
infinitive mood. It is founded on the authority of Harris, 
Lowth, Campbell, Pickbourn, &c. ; and I think too, on 
the authority of reason and common sense. " When the 
action or event, signified by a verb in the infinitive mood, 
is conte?nfiorary or future^ with respect to the verb to 
which it is chiefly related, the present of the infinitive 
is required : when it is not contemporary nor future, the 
perfect of the infinitive is necessary." To comprehend 
and apply this rule, you have only to consider, whether 
the infinitive verb refers to a time antecedent, contempo- 
rary, or future, with regard to the governing or related 
verb. When this simple point is ascertained, there will 
be no doubt in your mind respecting the form which the 
infinitive verb should have. A few examples may illus- 
trate these positions. If I wish to signify, that I rejoiced 
at a particular time, in recollecting the sight of a friend, 
sometime having intervened between the seeing and the 
rejoicing^ I should express myself thus : " I rejoiced to 



_ • In the expression, « I hope tliat I have done my duty," there appears to be a con» 
siderable ellipsis. The sentence at large may very ns^turally be thus explained : " I 
hope it will appear, or, I hope to show, or, I hope it is evident, or, I hope yon will be- 
lieve, that I have done my duty." But whether the ellipsis be adniitted or rejected, it 
is indubitable that the infinitive mood cannot be applied on this occasion : to say, " I 
hope to have done my duty," is harsh and in<!orrect. " I hoped \hnx I had done my 
doty;" that is, " I hoped he would believe, or, I hoped it was evident, that I had done 
my duty," is a correct and regular mode of expression But it would not be p'o»er, 
-under any circumstances whaterer, to say, " I hoped to have done my duty:" it should 
he, '> 1 hoped to do mj dnty." 

Y 2 




2^8 SYNTAX. 

have seen my friend." The seeing^ in this case, was evi- 
dently antecedent to the rejoicifig; and therefore the verb 
which expresses the former, must be in the perfect of the 
infinitive mood. The same meaning may be expressed in 
a different form : " I rejoiced that I had seen my friend ;" 
or, " in having seen my friend ;" and you may, in gene- 
ral, try the propriety of a doubtful point of this nature, by 
converting the phrase into these two corresponding forms 
of expression. "When it is convertible into both these 
equivalent phrases, its legitimacy must be admitted. — If, 
on the contrary, I wish to signify, that I rejoiced at the 
sight of ray friend, that my joy and his surprise were con- 
temporary, I should say, '' I rejoiced to see my friend ;'* 
or, in other words, " 1 rejoiced in seeing my friend.'* The 
correctness of this form of the infinitive may also, in most 
cases, be tried, by converting the phrase into other phrases 
of a similar import. 

The subject may be still further illustrated by addition- 
al examples. In the sentence which follows, the verb is 
"with propriety put in the perfect tense of the infinitive 
mood : " It would have afforded me great pleasure, as 
often as I reflected upon it, to have been the messenger of 
such intelligence." As the message, in this instance, was 
antecedent to the pleasure, and not contemporary with it, 
the verb expressive of the message must denote that an- 
tecedence, by being in the perfect of the infinitive. If, 
on the contrary, the message and the pleasure were re- 
ferred to as contemporary, the subsequent verb would, 
with equal propriety, have been put iji the present of the 
infinitive: as, "It would have afforded me great pleasure, 
to be the messenger of such intelligence." In the for- 
mer instance, the phrase in question is equivalent to these 
words; " If I had been the messenger;" in the latter in- 
stance, to this expression ; " Being the messenger." 

For your satisfaction, I shall present you with a variety 
of false constructions, under the general rule. ^ 

" This is a book which proves itself to be written by the 
person whose name it bears;" it ought to be, "which 
proves itself fo have been 'written.^* 

" To see him would have afforded me pleasure all my 
life ;" it should be " ToJiave seen him, would have afford- 
ed," Sec. or, " To see him would afford me pleasure," 8cc. 

"The arguments were sufficient to have satisfied all 
who heard them ;" " Providence did not permit the reign 
of Julian to have been long and prosperous :" they sJiould 



SYNTAX. ' 259 

be, " were sufficient to satisfy " &c,a»d, " to be long and 
prosperous." 

" It was impossible for those men, by any diligence 
whatever, to have prevented this accident: every thing 
that men could have done, was done ;" corrected thus; 
*' to fire-vent this accident;" "every thing that men could 
do,'' &c. 

" The respect shown to the candidate would have been 
greater, if it had been practicable to have afforded repeat- 
ed opportunities to the freeholders, to have annexed their 
names to the address :" they should be, " if it had been 
practicable to afford^'" and *'^o annex their names." 

" From his biblical knowledge, he appears to study 
the Holy Scriptures with great attention :" it ought to be, 
" he appears to have studied,'" 8cc. 

" I cannot excuse the remissness of those Avhose busi- 
ness it should have been, as it certainly was their interest, 
to have interposed their good offices :" " There were two 
circumstances which made it necessary for them to have 
lost no time:" '* History painters would have found it dif- 
ficult to have invented such a species of beings." In 
these three examples, the phrases should have been, " to 
Interfiose, to lose, to in-vent.'* 

It is proper to remind you, that, in order to express the 
past time with the defective verb ought, the perfect of the 
infinitive must always be used : as, " He ought to have 
done it." When we use this verb, this is the only possi- 
ble way to distinguish the past from the present. 

In support of the positions advanced under this rule, 
can be produced the sentiments of the most eminent 
grammarians. There are, however, some writers on 
grammar, who strenuously maintain, that the governed 
verb in the infinitive ought to be in the past tense, when 
the verb which governs it, is in the past time. Though this 
cannot bfe admitted, in the instances which are controvert- 
ed under this rule, or in any instances of a similar nature, 
yet there can be no doubt that in many cases, in which the 
thing referred to, preceded the governing verb, it would 
be proper and alfowable. Wc way say ; " From a con- 
versation I once bad with him, he appeared to have stu- 
died Hoiner with great care and judgment." It would be 
proper also to say, "iVont his conversation, he apfiears to 
have studied Homer, with great care and judgment;" 
" Tl)at-. unhappy man is su/i/iosed to have died by vio- 
lence." These examples are not only consistent with 



260 SYNTAX. 

our rule, but they confirm and illustrate it. It is the 
tense of the governing verb only, that marks what is call- 
ed the absolute time; the tense of the verb governed, 
marks solely its relative time with respect to the verb. 

To assert, as some writers do, that verbs in the infini- 
tive mood have no tenses, no relative distinctions of 
present, past, and future, is inconsistent with just gram- 
matical views of the subject. That these verbs associate 
with verbs in all the tenses, is no proof of their having no 
peculiar time of their own. Whatever period the govern- 
ing verb assumes, whether present, past, or future, the 
governed verb in the infinitive always respects that peri- 
od, and its time is calculated from it. Thus, the time of 
the infinitive may be before, after, or the same as, the 
time of the governing verb, according as the thing signi- 
fied by the infinitive, is supposed to be before, after, 
or present with, the thing denoted by the governing verb. 
It is, therefore, with great propriety, that tenses are as-^ 
signed to verbs of the infinitive mood. The point of time 
from which they are computed, is of no consequence; 
since present, past, and future, are completely applicable 
to them. 

It may not be improper to observe, that though it is 
often correct to use the perfect of the infinitive after the 
governing verb, yet there are particular cases, in which 
it would be better to give the expression a different form. 
Thus, instead of saying, " I wish to have written to him 
sooner,'* *' I then wished to have written to him sooner," 
"He will one day wish to have written sooner:" it 
would be more perspicuous and forcible, as well as more 
agreeable to the practice of good writers, to say ; " I 
wish that I had written to him sooner," " He will one 
day wish that he had written sooner." 

Should the justness of these strictures be admitted, 
the past infinitive would not be superseded, though some 
grammarians have supposed it would : there would still 
be numerous occasions for the use of it; as we may per- 
ceive by a few examples. " It would ever afterwards 
have been a source of pleasure, to have found him wise 
and virtuous." '• To have deferred his repentance 
longer, would have disqualified him for repenting at all." 
"They will then see, that to have faithfully performed 
their duty, would have been their greatest consolation." 

In relating things that were formerly expressed by an- 



SYNTAX. 261 

other person, we often meet with modes of expression si- 
milar to the following: 

"The travellers Avho lately came from the south of 
England, said that the harvest there was very abundant :" 
" I met Charles yesterday, who told nicihat he is very hap- 
py :" " The professor asserted, that a resolute adherence 
to truth /« an indispensable duty:" "The preacher said 
very audibly, that whatever ivas useful, was good.'* 

In referring to the declarations of this nature, the pre- 
sent tense must be used, if the position is immutably the 
same at all times, or supposed to be so : as, " The bishop 
declared, that virtue /* always advantageous :" not, " ivas 
always advantageous." But if the assertion referred to 
something that is not always the same, or supposed to be 
so, the past tense must be applied : as, " George said that 
he ivas very happy :" not, " is very happy." 

The following sentences will fully exemplify, to the 
young grammarian, both the parts of this rule. " He de- 
clared to us, that he was afraid of no man; because con- 
scious innocence gives firmness of mind." " He protested, 
that he de/iefco? what was said, because it appeared to him 
probable." " Charles asserted that it was his opinion that 
men always succeed^ when they use precaution and pains." 
'•The doctor declared to his audience, that if virtue suffery. 
some pains, she is amply recompensed by the pleasure 
which attends her." 

Now parse and correct the following 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

The next new year's day, I shall be at school three 
years. 

And he that was dead, sat up, and began to speak. 

I should be obliged to him if he will gratify me in that 
particular. 

And the multitude wondered when they saw the dumb 
to speak, the maimed to be whole, the lame walk, and the 
blind seeing. 

I have compassion on the multitude, because they con- 
tinue with me now tliree days. 

In the treasury belonging to the Cathedral in this city, 
is preserved with the greatest veneration, for upwards of 
six hundred years, a dish which ibrv pretend to be made 
of emerald. 



262 SYNTAX. 

The court of Rome gladly laid hold on all the opportu- 
nities, which the imprudence, weakness, or necessities of 
princes, afford it, to extend its authority. 

Fierce as he mov'd his silver shafts resound. 

They maintained that scripture conclusion, that all 
mankind rise from one head. 

John will earn his wages, when his service is comple- 
ted. 

Ye will not come unto me, that ye might have life. 

Be that as it will, he cannot justify his conduct. 

I have been at London a year, and seen the king last 
summer. 

After we visited London, we returned, content and 
thankful, to our retired and peaceful habitation. 

The follotoing examples are adapted to the notes and obscr- 
■vations under Rule III. 

1. 1 purpose to go to London in a few months, and 
after I shall finish my business there to proceed to Ame- 
rica. 

These prosecutions of William seem to be the most ini- 
quitous measures pursued by the court, during the time 
that the use of parliaments was suspended. 

From the little conversation I had with him, he appear- 
ed to have been a man of letters. 

I always intended to have rewarded my son according 
to his merit. 

It would, on reflection, have given me great satisfac- 
tion, to relieve him from that distressed situation. 

It required so much care, that I thought I should have 
lost it before I reached home. 

We have done no more than it was our duty to have 
done. 

He would have assisted one of his friends, if he could 
do it without injuring the other; but as that CQuld not 
have been done, he avoided all interference. 

Must it not be expected, that he would have defended 
an authority, which had been so long exercised without 
controversy ? 

These enemies of Christianity were confounded, whilst 
they were expecting to have found an opportunity to have 
betrayed its author. 



SYNTAX. 263 

His sea sickness was so great, that I often feared he 
would have died before our arrival. 

If these persons had intended to deceive, they would 
have taken care to have avoided, what would expose them 
to the objections of their opponents. 

It was a great pleasure to have received his approbation 
of my labours ; for which I cordially thanked him. 

It would have afforded me still greater pleasure, to re- 
ceive his approbation at an earlier period: but to receive 
it at all, reflected credit upon me. 

To be censured by him, would soon have proved an in- 
superable discouragement. 

Him portion'd maids, apprenticM orphans blest. 
The young who labour, and the old who rest. 

The doctor, in his lecture, said, that fever always pro 
duced thirst. 



SECTION XX. 



RULE IV. 

Some conjunctions require the indicative^ some the sub- 
junctive mood after them. When something contingent or 
doubtful is implied^ the verb is in the subjunctive mood : as, 

" -^he studies his lesson well to-day, he may ride to- 
morrow.*' " i/he study more, he will learn faster." " He 
will not be pardoned, unless he refient'^ 

Conjunctions that are of a positive and absolute nature^ 
require the indicative mood. " As virtue advances, so vice 
recedes." " He is healthy, because he is temperate." 

The conjunctions, if though^ unless, except, ivhether, Sec. 
generally require th* second iovm of the subjunctive mood 
present tense, and the second form of the imperfect of the 
neuter verb be, and passive verbs: as, "i/'thou be afflict- 
ed, repine not;" '^Though he slay me, yet will I trust 
in him;" " He cannot be clean unless he ivash himself;" 
" No power, except it were given from above;'* " Whether 
it tuere I or they, so we preach.** But sometimes they re- 



n 



264 SYNTAX. 

quire Xhtjirst form : as, " If he thinks^ as he speaks, he 
may safely be trusted.'* *' If\\& is now dif>posed to it, I 
will perform the operation." "He acts uprightly, unless 
he deceives me." " If he ivas there, we shall know it to- 
morrow." " Whether he 7yos deceitful or not, time will 
determine." But when the sentence does not imply doubt, 
the verbs following these conjunctions, are in the indica- 
tive mood. 

1. Almost all the irregularities, in the construction of 
any language have arisen from the ellipsis of some words, 
which were originally inserted in the sentence, and made 
it regular; and it is probable, that this has been generally 
the case with respect to the conjunctive form of words, 
now in use; which will appear from the following exam- 
ples: " We shall overtake him though he run;'' that is, 
*' though he sAow/c^ run ;" "unless he act prudently, he 
will not accomplish his purpose ;" that is, " unlese he shall 
act prudently." "If he succeed and obtain his end, he will 
not be the happier for it;" that is, " If he should succeed, 
and should obtain his end." These remarks and exam- 
ples are designed to show the original of many of our pre- 
sent conjunctive forms of expression; and to enable you 
to examine the propriety of using them, by tracing the 
words in question to their proper origin and ancient con- 
nexions. But it is necessary to be more particular on this 
subject, and therefore I shall add a few observations re- 
specting it. 

That part of the verb which I call the second form of 
the present tense of the subjunctive mood, has a future 
signification. This is effected by not varying the termi 
nations of the second and third persons singular as the in- 
dicative does; as will be evident from the following exam- 
ples : " If thou prosfier, thou shouldst be thankful ;" 
" Unless he study more closely, he will never be learn- 
ed." Some writers however would express these senti- 
ments with the personal variations; "If thou /jros^er^s?," 
&c. " Unless he studies^'' &c. : and as there is a great 
diversity of practice in this point, it is proper to offer a 
few remarks to assist you in distinguishing the right ap- 
plication of these different forms of expression. It may 
be considered as a rule, that no changes of termination are 
necessary, when these two circumstances concur : 1st, 
When the subject is ot a dubious and contingent nature; 
and 2d, When the verb has a reference to future time- 



SYNTAX. 265 

In the following sentence, both these circumstances will 
be found to unite : *' If thou injure another, thou wilt hurt 
thyself;" "He has a hard heart; and if he rowrmwe im- 
penitent, he must suffer;" *' He will maintain his princi- 
ples, though he lose his estate;" ** Whether he succeed or 
not, his intention is laudable;" "If he be not prosperous, 
he will not repine." " It a m2,n smite his servant, and he 
die j" he. Exodus xx'u 20. In all these examples, the things 
signified by the verbs are uncertain, and refer to future 
time. These verbs, therefore, are properly used in the 
second form of the subjunctive present. 

But in the instances which follow, future time is not re- 
ferred to ; and therefore a different construction takes 
place : " If thou livest virtuously, thou art happy ;" " Un- 
less he means what he says, he is doubly faithless;" "If 
he allows the excellence of virtue, he does not regard her 
precepts;" "If thou believest with all thy heart, thou 
mayst," Sec. jlcts^ viii, 37. These are properly used in 
the Jirst form of the subjunctive mood present tense. 

As there are two forms of the subjunctive imperfect of 
the neuter verb be^ and of passive verbs, a rule which 
will direct you in the pi:oper use of each, may be found 
useful. The rule, which will be found generally cor- 
rect, is, '* When the sentence implies doubt, supposition, 
8cc. and the neuter verb be, or the passive verb is used 
with a reference to present or future time, and is either 
followed, or preceded, by another verb in the imfierfect 
of the potential mood, the s€C07id form of the imperfect 
must be used : as, " If he ivere here, we should rejoice 
together ;" " IVere she present, she nvould enjoy the 
scene." " He might go, if he nvere disposed to." But 
when there is no reference to present or future time, and 
it is neither followed nor preceded by the potential im- 
perfect, \^\(z first form of the imperfect must be used ; as, 
" If he %vas ill, he did not let his friends know it ; i/" he 
Hvas there, he did his duty :" " Whether he ivas absent or 
present, is not known." 

There are many sentences, introduced by conjunctions, 
in which neither contingency nor futurity is denoted : 
as, " Though he excels her in knowledge, she far exceeds 
him in virtue;" " Though he /* poor, he is contented;" 
and then the verbs are in the indicative mood : 'ivere 
therefore, in the following sentence, is erroneous. 
" Though he were divinely inspired, and spoke therefore 
as the oracles of God, with supreme authority ; though he 
tvere endued with supernatural powers, and could, there- 

z 



^66 SYNTAX. 

fore, have confirmed the truth of what he uttered, by irij 
Tacles : yet, in compliance with the way in which humai> 
nature and reasonable creatures are usually wrought up- 
on, he reasoned." That our Saviour- was divinely in- 
spired, and endued with supernatural powers, are posi- 
tions that are here taken for granted, as not admitting the 
least doubt; therefore the indicative mood, *' Though he 
ivas divinely inspired ; though he toas endued with super- 
natural powers;" would have been better. The second 
form of the subjunctive imperfect of the neuter verb he^ 
is used in the like improper manner, in the following ex- 
ample : ^' Though, he nvere a son, yet learned he obedi- 
ence, by the things which he suffered." But, in a similar 
passage, the indicative, with great propriety, is employ- 
ed to the same purpose: " Though he wan rich, yet for 
your sakes he became poor." 

2. Lest and that^ annexed to a command preceding, ne- 
cessarily require the following verb to be in the second 
form )f the subjunctive present: as, "Love not sleep, 
test thou come to poverty;'* " Reprove not a scorner, lest 
he hate thee;" "Take heed that thou speak not to Jacob." 

Ifw'iih (^w; following it, when futurity is denoted, re- 
quires the second form of the subjunctive present: as, 
" If he. do but touch the hills, they shall smoke ;" " If he 
be but discreet, he will succeed." But the first form ought 
to be used, on this occasion, when future time is not signi- 
fied : as, " If in this expression, he does but jestj no of 
fence should be taken;" " If she is but sincere, I am hap- 
py." The same distinction applies to the following forms 
of expression : " If he do submit, it will be from necessi- 
ty ;" " If thou do not reward this service, he will be dis- 
couraged;" " If thou dost heartily forgive him, endeavour 
to forget the offence." 

3. In the following instances, the conjunction that^ ex- 
pressed or understood, seems to be improperly accompa- 
nied with the subjunctive mood. " So much she dreaded 
his tyranny, that the fate of her friend she dare not la- 
ment." " He reasoned so artfully that his friends would 
listen, and think \_that~\ he nvere not wrong." 

4. The same conjunction followed both by the first and 
second forms of the subjunctive present, in the same sen- 
tence, and in the same circumstances, seems to be a great 
impropriety ; as in these instances. " i/ there be but one 
body of legislators, it is no better than a tyranny; z/ there 
are only tv/o. there will xvant a casting vojce." " If a man 




SYNTAX. 267 

have a hundred sheep, and one of t^iem as gone astrgly,'* 
Sec. 

5. On the form of the auxiliaries in the compound tenses 
of the subjunctive mood, it seems proper to make a few 
observations. Some writers express themselves in the 
perfect tense as follows : " If thou have determined, vYe 
must submit:" "Unless he have consented, the writing 
will be void f but we believe that few authors of critical 
sagacity write in this manner. The proper form seems t© 
be, "If thou hast determined; unless he has consented," 
&c. conformably to what we generally meet with in the 
Bible : " I have surnamed thee, though thou hast not 
known me." Isaiah xlv. 4, 4. " What is the hope of the 
hypocrite, though he hath gained," Sec. Job xxvii. 8. See 
also Acts xxviii. 4. 

6. In the pluperfect and future tenses, we sometimes 
meet with such expressions as these : " If thou had ap- 
plied thyself diligently, thou wouldst have reaped the ad- 
vantage; unless thou shall speak the whole truth, we can- 
not determine ;" " If thou wi// undertake the business 
there is little doubt of success." This mode of express- 
ing the auxiliaries, does not appear to be warranted by the 
general practice of correct writers. They should be, 
hadst^ shall, and tuilt : and we find them used in this form, 
in the sacred Scriptures. 

" If thou hadst known," &c. Luke xix. 47. " If thou 
hadst h^cw hQYt" he. John x\. 21. " If thou luilty thou 
canst make me clean." Matt. viii. 2. See also, 2 Sam. ii. 
27. Matt xvii. 4. 

7. The second person singular of the imperfect tense in 
the subjunctive mood, is also very frequently used with- 
out the personal termination : as, " If thou loved him 
truly, thou wouldst obey him;" "Though thou f/ic/ con- 
form, thou hast gained nothing by it." This, however, ap- 
pears to be improper. Our present version of the Scrip- 
tures, which are again referred to, as a good grammatical 
authority in points of this nature, decides against it. "If 
ihou knewest the g'lit," he. John iv. 10. ^^ l( thou didsf 
receive it, why dost thou glory?" &:c. 1 Cor. iv. 7. See 
also Dan. v. 22. 

8. It may not be superfluous, also to observe, that the 
auxiliaries of the potential mood, when applied to the 
subjunctive, retain the termination of the second person 
singular. We properly say, " If thou inayst or canst go;" 
" Though thou mightst live ;'^ "Unless thou couldst read -/' 



-?68 SYNTAX. 

'^^If thou itxouldst ieara ;" and not> " If thou may ov can 
go;" &c. It is sufficient, on this point, to adduce the au- 
thorities of Johnson and Lowth ; " If thou shouldst go ;"^ 
Jolmson. " If thou may sty mightstyOV coutdst love ;*' Lowth. 
Some authors think, that when that expresses the motive 
or end, these auxiliaries should not be varied : as, " I 
advise thee, that thou may beware;" "He checked thee, 
that thou should not presume :" but there does not appear 
to be any ground for this exception. If the expression of 
'' condition, doubt, contingency," Sec. does not prevent a 
change in the form of these auxiliaries, why should they 
not vary, when a motive or end is expressed ? The trans- 
lators of the Scriptures do not appear to have made the 
distinction contended for. " Thou buildest the wall, that 
thou mayst be their king." JVeh. vi. 6. ** There is for- 
giveness with thee, that thou mayst be feared." Psalms 
cxxx. 4. 

9. Some conjunctions have their corresponding con- 
junctions belonging to them, so that, in the subsequent 
member of the sentence, the latter answers to the former: 
as, 

1. THOUGH, — YET, NEVERTHELESS: as, " T'/Sow^A he wa*. 
rich, yet for our sakes he became poor." 

2. WHETHER— or: as, " Whether he will go or not, I 
cannot tell." 

3. EITHER — or: as, " I will either send it, or bring it 
myself." 

4. NEITHER — NOR : as, " Neither thou nor I am able to 
compass it." 

5. AS — as: expressing a comparison of equality: as^ 
*' She is as amiable as her sister." 

6. AS — so : expressing a comparison of equality : " A^ 
the stars, so shall thy seed be." 

7. AS — so: expressing a comparison of quality: as, " As 
the one dieth, so dieth the other." 

8. so — AS : with the verb expressing a comparison of qua- 
lity : as, "To see thy glory, so as I have seen thee 
in the sanctuary." 

9. so — AS : with a negative and an adjective expressing 
a comparison of quantity : as, " Pompey was not so 
great a man as Caesar." 

10. so — that: expressing a consequence: as, " He was. 
so fatigued, that he could scarcely move.*^ 
The conjunctions or and Jior may often be used, with 
nearly equal propriety. " The kingjwhosft character was 



SYNTAX. 26# 

iiot sufficiently vigorous nor decisive, assentedto the mea- 
sure.'* In this sentence, or would perhaps have been 
better: but, in general, wor seems to repeat the negation 
in the former part of the sentence, and therefore gives 
more emphasis to the expression. 

10. Conjunctions are often improperly used, both singly 
and in pairs. The following are examples of this impro- 
priety. " The relations are sa uncertain, as that they re- 
quire a great deal of examination :'* it should be, " that 
they require,'* &c. " There was tio man so sanguine, 
who did not apprehend some ill consequences:" it ought 
to be, " So sanguine as not to apprehend,^' &c. ; or, " no 
man, how sanguine soever, who did not," &c. *' To trust 
in him, is no more but to acknowledge his power." " This 
is no other but the gate of paradise." In both these in- 
stances, but should be than. " We should sufficiently 
weigh the objects of our hope; whether they are such as 
we may reasonably expect from them what they propose," 
8cc. It ought to be, " Ma; we may reasonably," See. 
" The duke had not behaved with that loyalty as he ought 
to have done;" ^' with which he ought." "In the order 
as they lie in his preface :" it should be, " in order as they 
lie ;" or " in the order in which they lie." 

There is a peculiar neatness in a sentence beginning; 
with the conjunctive form of a verb. " Were there no 
difference, there would be no choice." 

A double conjunctive, in two correspondent clauses of 
a sentence, is sometimes made use of; as, " Had he 
done this, he had escaped :" " Had the limitations on 
the prerogative been, in his lime, quite fixed and certain, 
his integrity had made him regard as sacred, the bounda- 
ries of the constitution." The sentence in the common 
form would have read thus: "If the limitations on the 
prerogative had been, &c. his integrity would have made him 
regard," &c. 

The particle o*, when it is connected with the pro- 
noun such^ has the force of a relative pronoun : as, " Let 
such as presume to advise others, look well to their own 
conduct;" which is equivalent to, *'Let them wy^o pre- 
sume," &c. 

" Such sharp replies that cost him his life :" " as cost 
him," Sec. " If he were truly that scarecrow, as he is 
now commonly painted;" ''■such a scarecrow," &c. "I 
wish I could do that justice to his memory, to oblige the 
painters," &c. : " diO such justice as would oblige,", Sec. 

2 2 



■3^0 SYNTAX. 

In regard that is solemn and antiquated ; because wotilcj^ 
do much better in the following sentence. •< It cannotl 
be otherwise, in regard that the French prosody differs.'^ 
from that of every other lant^uat^e.'* 

The word excefit is far preferable to other than. " It 
admitted of no effectual cure other than amputation.'* 
Except is also to be preferred to all but. *'They were 
happy all but the stranger.'* 

In the two following phrases, the conjunction as is im- 
properly omitted; *' Which nobody presumes, or is so 
sanguine to hope." *^ I must, however, be so just to 
own." 

The conjunction that is often properly omitted, and 
understood: as, *'I beg you would come to me;" " See 
thou do it not;" instead of " that you would," ''that 
thou do." But in the following and many similar phrases 
this conjunction would be much better inserted : " Yet it 
is reason the memory of their virtues remain to poste- 
rity." It should be, " yet it is just that the memory," 
8cc. 

Now correct and parse the following 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

If he acquires riches, they will corrupt his mind, and b6: 
useless to others. 

Though he urges me yet more earnestly, I shall not 
comply, unless he advances more forcible reasons. 

I shall walk in the fields ta-day, unless it rains. 

As the governess was present, the children behaved 
properly. 

She disapproves the measure, because it were very im- 
proper. 

Though he be high, he hath respect to the lowly. 

Though he were her friend, he did not attempt to jus- 
tify her conduct. 

Whether he improve or not, I cannot determine. 

Though the fact be extraordinary, it certainly did hap- 
pen. 

Remember what thou wert, and be humble. 

O I that his heart was tender, and susceptible of th^> 
woes of others. 

Shall then this verse to future age pretend. 
Thou wert jny guide, philosopher, and friend ? 



SYNTAX. 571 

i. Unless he learns faster, he will be no scholar. 

Thoutifh he falls he shall not be utterly cast down. 

On condition that he comes, I will consent to stay. 

However that affair terminates, my conduct will be un- 
impeachable. 

If virtue rewards us not so soon as we desire, the pay- 
ment will be made with interest. 

Till repentance composes his mind he will be a stranger 
to peace. 

Whether he confesses, or not, the truth will certainly 
be discovered. 

If thou censurest uncharitably, thou wilt be entitled to 
no favour. 

Though, at times, the ascent of the templeof virtue, ap- 
pears steep and craggy, be not discouraged. Persevere 
until thou gainest the summit : there, all is order, beauty, 
and pleasure. 

If Charlotte desire to gain esteem and love, she does 
not employ the proper means. 

Unless the accountant deceive me, my estate is consi- 
derably improved. 

Though self-government produce some uneasiness, it 
is light, when compared with the pain of vicious indul- 
gence. ' 

Whether he think as he speaks, time will discover. 

If thou censure uncharitably, thou deservest no favour. 

Thougn virtue appear severe, she is truly amiable. 

Though success be very doubtful, it is proper that h(5 
endeavours to succeed. 

The examfiles which folloiv^ are suited to the notes and ob' 
servations under Rule IV. 

2. Despise not any condition, lest it happens to be your 
own. 

Let him that is sanguine, take heed lest he miscarries. 

Take care that thou breakest not any of the established 
rules. 

If he does but intimate his desire, it will be sufficient to 
produce obedience. 

At the time of his return, if he is but expert in the bu- 
siness, he will find employment. 

If he do but speak to display his abilities, he is unwor- 
thy of attention. 



272 SYNTAX. 

If he be but in health, I am content. 

If he does promise, he will certainly perform. 

Though he do praise her, it is only for her beauty. 

If thou dost not forgive, perhaps thou wilt not be for- 
given. 

If thou do sincerely believe the truths of religion, act 
accordingly. 

3. His confused behaviour made it reasonable to sup- 
pose that he were guilty. 

He is so conscious of deserving the rebuke, that he 
dare not make any reply. 

His apoloi^y was so plausible, that many befriended him, 
and thought he were innocent. 

4. If one man prefer a life of industry, it is because he 
has an idea of comfort in wealth ; jf another prefers a life 
of eayety, it is from a like idea concerning pleasure. 

No one engages in that business, unless he aim at repu- 
tation, or hopes for some singular advantage. 

Though the design be laudable, and is favourable to our 
interest, it will involve much anxiety and labour. 

5. If thou have promised, be faithful to thy engage- 
ment. 

Though he have proved his right to submission, he is 
too generous to exact it. 

Unless he have improved, he is unfit for the office. 

6. If thou had succeeded, perhaps thoH wouldst not be 
the happier for it. 

Unless thou shall see the propriety of the measure, we 
shall not desire thy support. 

Though thou will not acknowledge, thou canst not deny 
the fact. 

7. If thou gave liberally, thou wilt receive a liberal 
reward. 

Though thou did injure him, he harbours no resent- 
ment. 

It would be well, if the report was only the misrepre- 
sentation of her enemies. 

Was he ever so great and opulent, this conduct would 
debase him. 



SYNTAX. 273 

Was I to enumerate all her virtues, it would look like 
flattery. 

Though I was perfect, yet would I not presume. 

8. If thou may share in his labours, be thankful, and do 
it cheerfully. 

Unless thou can fairly support the cause, give it up ho- 
nourably. 

Though thou might have foreseen the danger, thou 
couklst not have avoided it. 

If thou could convince him, he would not act accord- 

If thou would improve in knowledge, be diligent. 

Unless thou should make a timely retreat, the danger 
will be unavoidable. 

I have laboured and wearied myself, that thou may be 
at ease. 

He enlarged on those dangers, that thou should avoid 
them. 

9. Neither the cold or the fervid, but characters uni.» 
formly warm, are formed for friendship. 

They are both praise-worthy, and one is equally deser- 
ving as the other. 

He is not as diligent and learned as his brother. 

I will present it to him myself, or direct it to be given 
to him. 

Neither despise or oppose what you do not understand. 

The house is not as commodious as we expected it 
would be. 

I must, however, be so candid to own I have been mis- 
taken. 

There was something so amiable, and yet so piercing 
in his look, as affected me at once with love and terror. 

-" I gain'd a son ; 



And such a son, as all men hail'd me happy."^ 

The dog in the manger would not eat the hay himself, 
nor suffer the ox to eat it. 

As far as I am able to judge, the book is well written. 

We should faithfully perform the trust committed to us, 
or ingenuously relinquish the charge. 

He is not as eminent, and as much esteemed, .as he 
thinks himself to be. 



2/4 SYNTAX. 

The work is a dull performance; and is neither capa- 
ble of pleasing the understanding, or the imagination. 

There is no condition so secure, as cannot admit of 
chanpje. 

This is an event, which nobody presumes upon, or is so 
sanguine to hope for. 

We are generally pleased with any little accomplish- 
ments of body or mind. 

10. Be ready to succour such persons who need your 
assistance. 

The matter was no sooner propose<:l, but he privately 
withdrew to consider it. 

He has too much sense and prudence than to become a 
dupe to such artifices. 

It is not sufficient that our conduct, as far as it respects 
others, appears to be unexceptionable. 

The resolution was not the less fixed, that the secret 
was yet communicated to very few. 

He opposed the most remarkable corruptions of the 
ehurch of Rome, so as that his doctrines were embraced 
by great numbers. 

He gained nothing further by his speech, but only to be 
commended for his eloquence. 

He has little more of the scholar besides the name. 

He has little more of the scholar than the name. 

They had no sooner risen, but they applied themselves 
to their studies. 

From no other institution, besides the admirable one of 
juries, could so great a benefit be expected. 

Those savage people seemed to have no other element 
but war. 

Such men that act treacherously ought to be avoided. 

Germany ran the same risk which Italy had done. 

No errors are so trivial, but they deserve to be cor- 
yected. 



SYNTAX. 275 



SECTION XXI. 



RULE V. 

All the parts of a sentence should correspond to each 
'Other: a regular and defiendent construction, throughout^ 
should be carefully preserved. The following sentence 
is therefore inaccurate; " He was more beloved, but not 
so much admired as Cinlhio." It should be, '* He was 
more beloved than Cinthio, but not so much admired." 

The first example under this rule, presents a most ir- 
regular construction, namely, *' He was more beloved 
as Cinthio." The words more^ and so much, are very 
improperly stated as having the same regimen. In cor- 
recting such sentences, it is not necessary to supply the 
latter ellipsis of the corrected sentence by saying, "but 
not so much admired as Cinthio was;" because the ellip- 
sis cannot lead to any discordant or improper construction, 
and the supply would often be harsh or inelegant. 

As this rule comprehends all the preceding rules, it 
may, at the first view, appear to be loo general to be 
useful. But by ranging under it a number of sentences 
peculiarly constructed, we shall perceive, that it is cal- 
culated to ascertain the true grammatical construction of 
many modes of expression, which none of the particular 
rules can sufficiently explain. 

"This dedication may serve for almost any book, that 
has, is, or shall be published." It out^hi to be, " that 
has been, or that shall be published." " He was guided by 
interests always different, sometimes contrary to, those of 
the community;" " different yro7n;" or, "always differ- 
ent from those of the community, and sometimes contrary 
to them." "Will it be urged that these books are as 
old, or even older than tradition ?" The words, " as 
old," and "older," cannot have a common regimen; it 
should be " as old as tradition, or even older." " It re- 
quires few talents to which most men are not born, or 
at least may not acquire ;" " or which, at least, they may 
not acquire." " The court of chancery frequently miti- 
gates and breaks the teeth of the common law." In this 
construction, the first verb is said, " to mitigate the teeth 
of the common law," which is an evident solecism. " Miti- 



276 SYNTAX. 

gates the common law, and breaks the teeth of it," would 
have been grammatical. 

"They presently grow into good humour, and good 
language towards the crown ;" " grow into good language," 
is very improper. *' There is never wanting a set of evil 
instruments, who either out of mad zeal, private hatred, 
or filthy lucre, are always ready," &c. We say pro- 
perly, *' A man acts out of mad zeal," or, "out of pri- 
vate hatred ;'* but we cannot say, if we would speak Eng- 
lish, " he oc^s out of filthy lucre," "To double htr 
kindness and caresses of me:" the word "kindness" re- 
quires to be followed by either to or ybr, and cannot be 
construed with the preposition of. " Never was man so 
teased, or sufi'ered half the uneasiness, as I have done this 
evening;" the first and third clauses, viz. "Never was 
man so teased, as I have done this evening," cannot be 
joined without an impropriety: and to connect the se- 
cond and third, the word that must be substituted for asi 
" Or suffered half the uneasiness that I have;" or else, 
"" half so much uneasiness as I have suffered." 

The first part of the following sentence abounds with 
adverbs, and those such as are hardly consistent with one 
another: "JYow much soever x\\q reformation of thi§ dege- 
nerate age i^'almost utterly to be despaired of, we may yet 
have a more comfortable prospect of future times." The 
sentence would be more correct in the following form : 
^^ Though the reformation of this degenerate age isnearly 
to be despaired of," Sec. 

" Oh ! shut not up my soul with the sinners, nor my 
life with the blood-thirsty; in whose hand is wicked- 
ness, and their right hand is full of gifts." As the pas- 
sage, introduced by the copulative conjunction and<, was 
not intended as a continuation of the principal and inde- 
pendent part of the sentence, but of the dependent part, 
the relative whose should have been used instead of the 
possessive their} viz. "and whose right-hand is full of 
gifts." 

The following sentences, which give the passive verb 
the regimen of an active verb, are very irregular, and 
by no means to be imitated. " The bishops and ab- 
bots were allowed their seats in the house of lords." 
" Thiasea was forbidden the presence of the emperor." 
" He was shovi'n that very story in one of his own books." 
These sentences should have been ; " The bishops and 
abbots were allowed to have (or to take) their seats in the 




SYNTAX. 277 

j^Iiouse of lords ;" or, " Seats in the house of lords were 
allowed to the bishops and abbots :'* " Thrasea was for- 
bidden to approach the presence of the emperor :'* or, 
"The presence of the emperor was forbidden to Thra- 
sea:'* "That very story was shown to him in one of his 
own books.'* 

" Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither have en- 
tered into the heart of man, the things which God hath 
prepared for them that love him.'* There seems to be 
'an impropriety in this sentence, in which the same noun 
serves in a double capacity, performing at the same time 
the offices both of the nominative and objective cases. 
"^Neither hath it entered into the heart of man to conceive 
the things,'* &c. would have been regular, 

" We have the power of retaining, altering, and com- 
pounding those images which we have once received, into 
all the varieties of picture and vision." It is very 
proper to say, "altering and compounding those images 
which' we have once received, into all the varieties of pic- 
ture and vision ;" but we can with no propriety say, " re- 
taining them into all the variety;" and yet according 
to the manner in which the words are ranged, this con- 
struction is unavoidable : for, " retaining, altering, and 
compounding," are participles, each of which equally re- 
fers to and governs the subsequent noun, those images ; 
and that noun again is necessarily connected with the fol- 
lowing preposition, i7ito. The construction might easily 
have been rectified, by disjoining the participle retaining 
from the other two participles, in this way: "We have 
the power of retaining those images which we have once 
received, and of altering and compounding them into all 
the varieties of picture and vision ;" or, perhaps better 
thus i " We have the power of retaining, altering, and 
compounding those images which we have once received, 
and of forming them into all the varieties of picture and 
vision." 

Now correct and parse th<^ following 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

Several alterations and additions have been made to the 
work. 

The first proposal was essentially different, and inferior 
to the second. 

He is more bold and active, but not so wise and studi- 
ous as his companion. 

A a 



278 SYNTAX. 

Ilk. 

Thou hearest Ihe sound of the wind, but thou canst 
not tell whence it cometh, and whither it goeth. 

Neither has he, nor any other persons, suspected so 
much dissimulation. 

The court of France or England, was to be the um- 
pire. 

In the reign of Henry II. all foreign commodities were 
plenty in England. 

There is no talent so useful towards success in business, 
or which puts men more out of the reach of accidents, 
than that quality generally possessed by persons of cool 
temper, and is in common language called discretion. 

The first project was to shorten discourse, by cutting 
polysyllables into one. 

I shall do all I can to persuade others to take the same 
measures for their cure which I have. 

The greatest masters of critical learning differ among 
one another. 

Micaiah said, " If thou certainly return in peace,, then 
hath not the Lord spoken by me." 

I do not suppose, that we Britons want a genius, tnore 
than the rest of our neighbours. 

The deaf man, whose ears were opened, and his fengue 
loosened, doubtless glorified the great physician. 

Groves, fields, and meadows, are, at any season of the 
year, pleasant to look upon ; but never so much as in the 
opening of the spring. 

The multitude rebuked them, because they should l;iold 
their peace. 

The intentions of some of these philosophers, nay, of 
many, might and probably were good. 

It is an unanswerable argument of a very refined age, 
the wonderful civilities that have passed between the na- 
tion of authors and that of readers. 

It was an unsuccessful undertaking; which, although it 
has failed, is no objection at all to an enterprise so well 
concerted. 

The reward is his due, and it has already, or will here- 
after, be given to him. 

By intercourse with wise and experienced persons, 
who know the world, we may improve and rub off the 
rust of a private and retired education. 

Sincerity is as valuable, and even more valuable, than 
knowledge. 



^ -- SYNTAX. 279 

No person was ever so perplexed, or sustained the 
morlifications, as he has done to day. 

The Romans gave, not only the freedom of the city, 
but capacity for employments, to several towns, in Gaul, 
Spain and Germany. 

Such writers have no other standard on which to form 
themselves, except what chances to be fashionable and 
popular. 

Whatever we do secretly, shall be displayed and beard 
in the clearest light. 

To the happiness of possessing a person of such uncom- 
mon merit, Boethius soon had the satisfaction of obtain- 
in'g the highest honour his country could bestow- 



V 

> 



8e PUNCTUATION 



PUNCTUATION. * 



Punctuation is the art of dividing a written composi-. 
lion into sentences, or parts of sentences, by points or 
stops for the purpose of marking the different pauses 
>vhich the sense, and an accurate pronunciation require. 

The Comma represents the shortest pause; the Semi- 
colon, a pause double that of the comma ; the Colon, dou- 
ble that of the semicolon ; and the Period, double that of 
,the colon. " 

The precise quantity or duration of each pause cannot 
be defined ; for it varies with the time of the whole, 
^"he same composition may be rehearsed in a quicker or 
a slower tune ; but the proportion between the pauses 
,i3hould be ever invariable. ■. 

In order more clearly to determine the proper ajif^lica- 
;lion of the points, we must distinguish between an pn/ier- 
fect phrase^ a simple sentence^ and a compound sentence. 

An imperfect phrase contains no assertion, or dots not 
amount to a proposition or sentence : as, *' Therefore } 
in haste; studious of praise." 

A simple sentence has but one subject, and one finite 
verb, expressed or implied : as, " Temperance preserves 
health.'* 

A compound sentence has more than one subject, or 
one finite verb, either expressed or understood; or it 
consists of two or more simple sentences connected to- 
gether; as, "Good nature mends and beautifies all ob- 
jects;" " Virtue refines the affections, but vice debases 
them." 

In a sentence, the subject and the verb, or either of 
them, may be accompanied with several adjuncts; as, the 
object, the end, the circumstance of time, place, manner, 
and the like : and the subject or verb may be either im- 
mediately connected with them, or mediately; that is, by 
being connected with something which is connected with 
some other, and so on: as, "The mind, unoccupied 
with useful knowledge, becomes a magazine of trifles and 
follies." 



PUNCTUATION. 281 

Members of sentences may be divided into simple and 
compound members. 



CHAPTER I. 



OF THE COMMA. 

^he Comma usually separates those parts of a sentence, 
vvhic)i, though very closely connected in sense and con- 
struction, require a pause between them. 

RULE I. 

Wit^ respect to a simple sentence, the several words 
of which it consists have so near a relation to each other, 
that^nn general, no points are requisite, except a full 
stop >at the end of it; as "The fear of the Lord is the 
beginning of wisdom." "Every part of matter swarms 
with kving creatures." 

A ifimple sentence, however, v/hen it is a long one, and 
the lybminative case is accompanied with inseparable ad- 
juncte, may admit of a pause immediately before the 
verb': as, "The good taste of the present age, has not 
alleiwed us to neglect the cultivation of the English lan- 
^^age." " To be totally indifferent to praise or censurej 
is a real defect in character.'* 

RULE II. 

When the connexion of different parts of a simple 
sentence, is interrupted by an imperfect phrase, a com- 
ma is usually introduced before the beginning, and at the 
end of this phrase: as, "I remember, with gratitude ^ 
his goodness to me;" "His work is, in many respects^ 
very imperfect. It is, therefore^ not much approved." 
But when these interruptions are slight and unimportant, 
the comma is better omitted: as, "Flattery is certainly 
pernicious :" " There is surely a pleasure in benefi- 
cence." 

In the generality of compound sentences, there is fre- 
quent occasion for commas. This v/ill appear from the 

A a 2 



282 PUNCTUATION. 



following rules; some of which apply to simple, as well 
as to compound sentences. 

RULE III. 

When two or more nouns occur in the same construc- 
tion, they are parted by a comma : as, " Reason, virtue, 
answer one great aim:" "The husband, wife and chil-^ 
dren, suffered extremely :"* " They took away their fur- 
niture, clothes, and stock in trade :" " He is alternately 
supported by his father, his uncle, and his elder brother.*' 

From this rule there is mostly an exception, with re-. 
gard to two nouns closely connected by a conjunction : as; 
" Virtue and vice form a strong contrast to each othq^TJ* 
'' Libertines call religion bigotry or superstit^dn :" 
"There is a natural difference between merit and dtra.t- 
rit, virtue and vice, wisdom and folly." But if thl parts 
connected are not short, a comma may be inserted, though 
the conjunction is expressed : as, " Romances may^e said 
to be miserable rhapsodies, or dangerous incent^^es to 
evil ;" " Intemperance destroys the strength of our ttpdiesj 
and the vigour of our minds." \ 

/ 

RULE IV. I 

Two or more adjectives belonging to the same siibstan- 
live, are likewise separated by commas: as, " Plail^, hor 
nest truth, wants no artificial covering;" " David »»^as a 
brave, wise, and pious man ;" " A woman, gentle, a^nti- 
ble, well-educated, and religious;" "The most innocent 
pleasures are the sweetest, the most rational, the mO\t 
affecting, and the most lasting." 

But two adjectives, immediately connected by a con- 
junction, are not separated by a comma: as, "True 
worth is modest and retired;" "Truth is fair and art- 
less, simple and sincere, uniform and consistent." " We 
must be wise or foolish; there is no medium." 

RULE V. 

Two or more verbs, having the same nominative case, 
and immediately following one another, are also separated 
by commas : as, " Virtue supports in adversity, rnode- 

* As a considerable pause in pronunciation is necessary between the last noun ami 
the verb, a comma sliould be inserted to denote it. But as no pause is allowable be- 
tween the last adjective and the noun, under Rule IV. the comma is theie properK 

omitted.— See Walker s Ekmentu of Elocution. 



f 



PUNCTUATION. 283 

rates in prosperity :" " In a letter, we may advise, exhort, 

omfort, request,, and discuss." 
Two verbs immediately connected by a conjunction, 
are an exception to the above rule : as, " The study of 
natural history expands and elevates the mind ;" " Whe- 
ther we eat or drink, labour or sleep, we should be mo- 
derate." 

} Two or more participles are subject to a similar rule, 
and exception : as, " A man, fearing, serving, and loving, 
his Creator ;" " He was happy in being loved, esteemed, 
and respected ;" *' By being admired and flattered, we are 

[ten corrupted." 



\ RULE VI. 

Twd or more adverbs immediately succeeding one an^ 
other, rjiust be separated by commas : as, " We are fear- 
fully, wpnderfuUy framed ;" " Success generally depends 
on acting prudently, steadily, and vigorously, in what we 
undertake." 

But when two adverbs are joined by a conjunction, they 
are not parted by the comma : as, " Some men sin delibe- 
rately cifid presumptuously ;" " There is no middle state j 
we mu^ live virtuously or viciously." 
^ 

RULE VII. 

WhjEn participles are followed by something that de- 
pendsjon them, they are generally separated from the rest 
ofth^ sentence by a comma: as, " The king, a/^/^roiym^ 
th^-jilan^-^xit'W in execution ;" "His talents, ybr7weoJ ybr 
^reat enterjirises, could not fail of rendering him conspi- 
cuous;" "All mankind compose one family, assembled 
under the eye of one common Father. 

RULE VIII. 
When a conjunction is divided by a phrase or sentence, 
from the verb to which it belongs, such intervening phrase 
lias usually a comma at each extremity: as, "They set 
out early, awf/, before the close of the day, arrived at the 
destined place." 

RULE IX. 
Expressions in a direct address, are separated from the 
rest of the sentence by commas : as, " My son^ give me 
thy heart;" "I am obliged to you, my friends^ for your 
many favours.** 



284 PUNCTUATION. 

RULE X. 
The case or nominative absolute, and the infinitivf 
mood absolute, are separated by commas from the body o\ 
the sentence: as, '^His father dying, he succeeded to the} 
estate;** " At length, their ministry performed, and race 
well run, they left the world in peace ;" " To confess thr 
truth, I was much in fault,'* r 

RULE XL i 

Nouns in apposition, that is, nouns added to other nouiW 
in the same case, by way of explication or illustration, 
when accompanied with adjuncts, are set off by commas** 
as, " Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles, was eminent fot his 
zeal and knowledge;** ** The butterfly, child of th^sum- 
mer, flutters in the sun/* . ' 

But if such nouns are single, or only form 4 proper 
name, they are not divided: as, "Paul the a|)ostle ;" 
" The emperor Antoninus wrote an excellent bo(&.'* 

RULE XII. \ 

Simple members of sentences connected by co|npara- 
tives, are, for the most part, distinguished by a<fomma: 
as, " jia the heart pantelh after the water brooks,(6fo doth 
my soul pant after thee;*' '^Better is a dinner ojf herbs 
with love, than a stalled ox and hatred with it.'* 

If the members in comparative sentences are sh(|rt, the 
comma is, in general, better omitted : as, " HowVmuch 
better is it to get wisdom than gold I*' '' Mankind act qj^ener 
from caprice Ma7i reason." 

RULE XIII. 
When words are placed in opposition to each other, or 
with some marked variety, they require to be distinguish- 
ed by a comma : as, ' 

"Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull; 
" Strong, without rage ; without o'erflowing, full." 

<' Good men, in this frail, imperfect state, are often 
found, not only in union ivith^ but in opposition /o, the 
views and conduct of one another." 

Sometmnes, when the word with which the last prepo- 
sition agrees, is single, it is better to omit the comma be- 
fore it : as, " Many states were in alliance ivith^ and under 
the protection of Rome.'* 



■^diL 



PUNCTUATION. 285 

rhe same rule and restriction must be applied, when 
iVo or more nouns refer to the same preposition : as, " He 
-^as composed, both under the threatening, and at the ap- 
proach, 0/ a cruel and lingering death ;" " He was not only 
the king, but the father o/his people." 

> 

\ RULE XIV. 

/A remarkable expression, or a short observation, some- 
^^r^at in manner of a quotation, may be properly marked 
with a comma : as, " It hurts a man*s pride to say, 1 do 
not knowi" " Plutarch calls lying, the vice of slaves." 

RULE XV. 

Relative pronouns are connective words, and generally 
admita€£)mma before men: as, *' He preaches sublimely, 
w/zo lives a sober, righteous, and pious life ;'* " There is 
no charm in the female sex, ivhich can supply the place of 
virtue." / 

But -v^hen two members, or phrases, are closely con- 
nected by a relative, restraining the general notion of the 
antecedent to a particular sense, the comma should be 
omitted^ as, " Self-denial is the sacrifice which virtue 
must majke;" " A man who is of a detracting spirit, will 
misconsifrue the most innocent words that can be put toge- 
ther." yin the latter example, the assertion is not of ''a 
man infeeneral," but of " a man who is of a detracting spi- 
rit ;" and therefore they should not be separated. 

The fifteenth rule applies equally to cases in which the 
relative is not expressed, but understood ; as, " It was from 
pifety, warm and unaffected, that his morals derived 
strength." " This sentiment, habitual and strong, influ- 
enced his whole conduct." In both of these examplesj 
the relative and the verb which was, are understood. 

RULE XVI. 

A simple member of a sentence, contained within an- 
other, or following another, must be distinguished by the 
comma : as, " to improve time, whilst we are blessed with 
health, will smooth the bed of sickness." *' Very often, 
iv\vhile we are complaining of the vanity, and the evils of 
j|uman life, we make that vanity, and we increase those 
^vils." 

If, however, the members succeeding each other, are- 
very closely connected, the comma is unnecessary : aSj 
'' Revelation tells us how we may attain happiness." 



\. 



286 PUNCTUATION. — ^^-*- , ^ 

When a verb in the infinitive mood follows its govern- 
ing verb, with several words between them, those wor(fs 
should generally have a comma at the end of them : a^ 
" It ill becomes good and wise men, to oppose and degrade 
one another.** 

Several verbs in the infinitive mood, having a commofi 
dependence, and succeeding one another, are also divided 
by commas : as, '* To relieve the indigent, to comfort the 
afRicted, to protect the innocent, to reward the deserving, 
are humane and noble employments.** N 

RULE XVII. . - 

When the verb to be is followed by a verb in the^iti^ni- 
tive mood, which, by transposition, might be mitde the 
nominative case to it, the former is generally separated 
from the latter verb, by a comma : as, " The most obvi- 
ous remedy is, to withdraw from all association* with bad 
men.'* " The first and most obvious remedy ag^ainst the 
infection, is, to withdraw from all association i^ith bad 
men.'* *, 

RULE XVIII. 5 

When adjuncts or circumstances are of importnibce, and 
often when the natural order of them is inverted, they 
may be set off by commas i as, "Virtue must bQ formed 
and supported, not by unfrequent acts, but by daily and 
repeated exertions.*' "Vices, like shadows, towards the 
evening of life, grow great and monstrous." " O^r inte- 
rests are interwoven by threads innumerable;*' (" By 
threads innumerable, our interests are interwoven.'* 

RULE XIX. 

Where a verb is understood, a comma may often be pro- 
perly introduced. This is a general rule, which, besides 
comprising some of the precediiig rules, will apply to 
many cases not determined by any of them : as, " From 
law arises security ; from security 5 curiosity ; from curio- 
sity, knowledge.*' In this example, the verb " arises" 
is understood before " curiosity" and " knowledge ;'* at 
which words a considerable pause is necessary. 

RULE XX. 

The words, nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly, for- 
merly, now, lastly, once more, above all, on the contrary^ 
in the next filace, in short, and all other words and phrases 



PUNCTUATION. 28t 

of the same kind, must generally be separated from the 
cqniext by a comma : as, " Remember thy best and first 
:^ iend ; formerly^ the supporter of thy infancy, and the 
guide of thy childhood ; now, the guardian of thy youth, 
and the hope of thy coming years." " He feared want, 
kence^ he over-valued riches." " This conduct may heal 
the difference, nay^ it uiay constantly prevent any in fu- 
ture.*' '*' Finally^ I shall only repeat what has been often 
justly said." *' If the sy^rmg put forth no blossoms, in 
summer there will be no beauty, and in autumn no fruit; 
50, if youth be trifled away without improvement, riper 
years may be contemptible, and old age miserable." 

liv^many of the foregoing rules and examples, great re- 
gard n^ust be paid to the length of the clauses, and the 
proportion which they bear to one another. An attention 
to the sqnse of any passage, and to the clear, easy com- 
municat^n of it, will, it is presumed, with the aid of the 
preceding rules, enable you to adjust the proper paus^Sj 
and the Jplaces for inserting the commas. 



CHAPTER II. 

OF THE SEMICOLON. 

TheSemicolon is used for dividing a compound sen- 
tenceinto two or more parts, not so closely connected as 
those which are separated by a comma, nor yet so little 
dependent on each other, as those which are distinguished 
by a colon. 

The Semicolon is sometimes used, when the preceding 
member of the sentence does not of itself give a complete 
sense, but depends on the following clause : and some- 
times when the sense of that member would be complete 
•without the concluding one: as in the following instances: 
*' As the desire of approbation, when it works according 
to reason, improves the amiable part of our species in 
every thing that is laudable ; so nothing is more destruc- 
tive to them, when it is governed by vanity and folly." 

" Experience teaches us, that an entire retreat frona 
worldly affairs, is not what religion requires ; nor does it 
;ven enjoin a long retreat from them." 

'* Straws swim upon the surface j but pearls lie at the 
bottom." 



288 PUNCTUATION. 

"Philosophers assert, that nature is unlimited in her 
operations ; that she has inexhaustible treasures in rar- 
serve ; that knowledge will always be progressive ; an^ 
that all future generations will continue to make discove- 
ries, of which we have not the least idea." 



V 



" But all subsists by elemental strife ; 
" And passions are the elements of life.'* 



CHAPTER III. 

OF THE COLON. 

The Colon is used to divide a sentence intp two or 
more parts, less connected than those which are separa- 
ted by a semicolon ; but not so independent a^separate, 
distinct sentences. 

The colon may be properly applied in the three follow- 
ing cases. {^ 

1. When a member of a sentence is complete ki itself, 
but followed by some supplemental remark, or fvirther il- 
lustration of the subject: as, ''Nature felt her 'inability 
to extricate herself from the consequences of gijilt : the 
gospel reveals the plan of Divine interposition arkl aid." 
" Nature confesseth some atonement to be necess**y : the 
gospel discovers that the necessary atonement is made." 

" Great works are performed, not by strength, buVper- 
severance : yonder palace was raised by single stonl&s ; 
yet you see its height and spaciousness." 

" In faith and hope the world will disagree ; 
" But all mankind*s concern is charity: 
'' All must be false that tlnvart this one great end ; 
" And, all of God, that bless mankind or mend." 

2. When a semicolon, or more than one, have prece- 
ded, and a still greater pause is necessary, in order to mark 
the connecting or concluding sentiment : as, " As we per- 
ceive the shadow to have moved along the dial, but di^ 
not perceive it moving; and it appears that the grass bate 
grown, though nobody ever saw it grow : so the advance* 
we make in knowledge, as they consist of such insensibM 
steps, are only perceivable by the distance." 



PUNCTUATION. 039 

'' A Divine Legislator, uttering his voice from heaven • 
an almighty governor, stretching forth his arm to punish 
or reward; informing us of perpetual rest prepared here- 
after for the righteous, and of indignation and wrath await- 
ing the wicked: these are the considerations which over- 
awe the world, which support integrity, and check guih." 

J. 1 he Colon is commonly used when an example, a 
quotation, or a speech, is introduced : as, " The Scrip- 
tures give us an amiable representation of the Deity, in 
these words: 'God is love.' - " He was often heard to 

leaVe i[' -''^ ""'^^ ^^^ '''°'^'^' ^"'^ ^ ^"^ ^"^^"S to 

The propriety of using a colon, or semicolon, is some- 
times determined by a conjunction's being expressed, or 
not exnressed : as, "Do not flatter yourselves with th^ 
the^workl.- ^^ happiness : for there is no such thing in 

;; Where grows ?~where grows it not? If vain our toil, 
;; We ought to blame the culture, not the soil : 
., fix d to no spot is happiness sincere; 

1 is no where to be found, or ev'ry where," 

CHAPTER IV. 

OF THE PERIOD. 

When a sentence is complete and independent, and not 
connected m construction with the following sentence, it 
IS marked with a Period. "«.ence, it 

Some sentences are independent of each other, both in 

heir sense and construction: as, "Fear God. Honour 

the King. Have charity towards all men." Others are 

independent only in their grammatical construction: as, 

1 he Supreme Being changes not, either in his desire to 
promote our happiness, or in the plan of his administration. 
Une light always shines upon us from above. One clear 
and direct path is always pointed out to man." 

A period may sometimes be admitted between two sen- 
tences, though they are joined by a disjunctive or copula- 
tive conjunction. For the quality of the point does not 
always depend on the connective particle, but on the 
sense and structure of sentences: as, "Recreations, 
though they may be of an innocent kind, require steady 

B b ^ 



290 jPUNCTUATIOK. 

government to keep them within a due and limited pro- 
vince. But such as are of an irregular and vicious na- 
ture, are not to be governed, but to be banished from 
every well-regulated mind.'* 

" He who lifts himself up to the observation and notice 
of the world, is, of all men, the least likely to avoid cen- 
sure. For he draws upon himself a thousand eyes, that 
will narrowly inspect him in every part." 

The period should be used after every abbreviated 
word : as, " M. S. P. S. N. B. A. D. O. S. N. S/' 
Sec. 



CHAPTER V. 



OF THE DASH, NOTES OF INTERROGATION 
' AND EXCLAMATION, AND THE PARENTHE 
SIS/ 

Section 1. 

Ofi/ie Dash. 

The Dash, though often used improperly by hasty and 
ihcoherent writers, may be introduced with propriety, 
where the sentence breaks off abruptly; where a signi- 
iicant pause is required; or where there is no unexpected 
turn in the sentiment : as, " If thou art he, so much re- 
spected once — but, oh ! how fallen ! how degraded !'* " If 
acting conformably to the will of our Creator; — if promo- 
ting the welfare of mankind around us; — if securing our 
own happiness; — are objects of the highest moment; — 
then we are loudly called upon to cultivate and extend 
the great interests of religion and virtue.'* A dash follow- 
ing a stop, denotes that the pause is to be greater than if 
the stop were alone; and when used by itself, requires a 
pause of such length as the sense alone can determine. 

" Here lies the great False marble, where? 

" Nothing but sordid dust lies here." 

" Whatever is, is right. — This world, 'tis true. 
" Was made for Caesar — but for Titus too." 



PUNCTUATION. 291 

Besides the points which mark the pauses in discourse, 
there are characters, which denote a different modulation 
of voice, in correspondence to th« sense. These are, 



The point of Interrogation, ? 
The point of Exclamation, 1 

The Parenthesis, ( ) 

Section 2. 

Of the Interrogatory point. 

A note of Interrogation is used at the end of an inter- 
rogative sentence; that is, when a question is asked: as, 
« Who will accompany me ?" " Shall we always be 
friends?" 

Questions which a person asks himself in contempla- 
tion, ought to be terminated by points of interrogation : 
as, "Who adorned the heavens with such exquisite beau- 
ty ?" i" At whose command do the planets perform their 
constant revolutions ?*' 

" To whom can riches give repute and trust, 
" Content or pleasure, but the good and just ?'* 

A point of interrogation is improper after sentences 
which are not questions, but only expressions of admira- 
tion, or of some other emotion. 

" How many instances have we of chastity and excel- 
lence in the fair sex 1" 

" With what prudence does the son of Sirach advise us, 
in the choice of our companions I'* 

A note of interrogation should not be employed, in cases 
where it is only said a question has been asked, and where 
the words are not used as a question. " The Cyprians 
asked mc why I wept." To give this sentence the inter- 
rogative form, it soould expressed thus, " The Cypri- 
ans said to me, ' Why dost thou weep ?' " 

Section 3. 

Of the Exclamatory ftomt. 

The %oie of Exclamation is applied to expressions of 
sudden emotion, surprise, joy, grief, &c. a»d alsjo to invo* 



292 PUNCTUATION. 

cations or addresses: as, " My friend I this conduct 
amazes me !" '' Bless the Lord, O my soul i and forget 
not all his benefits !'* 

*^ Oh! hid we both our humble state maintain'd, 
" And safe in peace and poverty remain'd !" 

" Hear me, O Lord ! for thy loving kindness is great '." .^ 

It is difficult in some cases, to distinguish between an 
interrogative and exclamatory sentence : but a sentence, 
in which any wonder or admiration is expressed, and i^o- 
answer either expected or implied, may be always pro- 
perly terminated by a note of exclamation : as, "How 
much vanity in the pursuits of men!" "Who can^ suffi- 
ciently express the goodness of our Creator !'* "What is 
more amiable than virtue !" ^ 

The interrogation and exclamation points are indeter- 
minate as to their quantity or time, and maybe equivalent 
in that respect to a semicolon, a colon, or a periodVas the 
sense may require. They mark an elevation of the Voice. 

The utility of the points of Interrogation and Exclama- 
tion, appears from the following examples, in which the 
meaning is signified and discriminated solely by the points. 

" What condescension 1'* 
" What condescension?" 

" How great was the sacrifice 1" 
" How great was the sacrifice ?" 

Section 4. 

Of the Parenthesis. 

A Parenthesis is a clause containing some necessary in- 
formation, or useful remark, introduced into the body of 
a sentence obliquely, and which may be omitted without 
injuring the grammatical construction; as, 

" Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,) 
" Virtue alone is happiness below." 

" And was the ransom paid ? It was ; and pai^^^ 
" (What can exalt his bounty more ?) for thee." 



PUNCTUATION. 29;^ 

•'To gain a posthumous reputation, is to save four or 
five letters (for what is a name besides?) from oblivion." 
" Know ye not, brethren, (for I speak lo them that know 
the law,) how that the law hath dominion over a man as 
long; as he liveth ?" 

If the incidental clause is short, or perfectly coincides 
with the rest of the sentence, it is not proper to use the 
parenthetical characters. The following instances are 
therefore proper uses of the parenthesis. *' Speak you 
(who saw) his wonders in the deep." " Every planet (as 
the Creator has made nothing in vain) is most probably 
inhabited." '' He found them asleep again ; (for their 
eyeS" were heavy;) neither knew thev what to answer 
him."' 

The parenthesis generally marks a moderate depres- 
sion of the voice, and may be accompanied with every 
point whach the sense would require, if the parenthetical 
characters were omitted. It ought to terminate with the 
same kind of stop which the member has, that precedes 
it ; and tb contain that stop within the parenthetical marks. 
We must, however, except cases of interrogation and ex- 
clamation : as, *' While they wish to please, (and why 
should they not wish it?) they disdain dishonourable 
means.'' "It was represented by an analogy, (Oh, how 
inadequate !) which was borrowed from the religion of 
paganism." 



CHAPTER VL 



OF THE APOSTROPHE, CARET, Sec. 

There are other characters, which are frequently made 
use of in composition, and which may be explained in this 
place, viz. 

An Apostrophe, marked thus ' is used to abbreviate or 
shorten a word : as, " 'tis for it is ; tho' for though ; e'en 
for even ; judg'd ioY judged." Its chief use is to show the 
genitive case of nouns : as, " A man's property ; a wo- 
man's ornament." 

A Caret marked thus ^ is placed where some word or 

letter happens to be left out in writing, and which is in- 
serted over the line. This mark is also called a circum- 



294 PUNCTUATION. 

flex, when placed over a particular vowel, to denote u 
long syllable: as, " Euphrates." 

A Hyphen, marked thus - is employed in connecting 
compound words; as, "Lap-dog, teapot, pre-existence, 
self-love, to-morrow, mother-in-law." 

It is also used when a word is divided, and the former 
part is written or printed at the end of one line, and the 
latter part at the beginning of another. In this case, it 
is placed at the end of the first line, not at the beginning 
of the second. 

The Acute Accent marked thus/; as, *' -Fawct/.** The 
Grave thus ^: as, ^^ Favour.'^ ^ 

In English the accental marks are chiefly used in gell- 
ing books and dictionaries, to mark the syllables which 
require a particular stress of the voice in pronunciation. 

The stress is laid on long and short syllables indiscri- 
minately. In order to distinguish the one from ^he other, 
some writers of dictionaries have placed the grave on 
the former, and the acute on the latter, in this manner: 
*' Minor, mineral, lively, lived, rival, river.'* 

The proper mark to distinguish a long syllable, is 
this ~ : as, " Rosey :" and a short one this " : as, " folly." 
This last mark is called a breve. 

A Diaeresis, thus marked", consists of two points pla- 
ced over one of the vowels that would otherwise make 
a diphthong, and parts them into two syllables: as, 
"Creator, coadjutor, aerial." 

A section, marked thus §, is the division of a discourse, 
or chapter, into less parts or portions. 

A paragraph ^ denotes the beginning of a new subject, 
or a sentence not connected with the foregoing. This 
character is chiefly used in the Old and in the New Tes- 
taments. 

A Quotation" ". Two inverted commas are generally 
placed at the beginning of a phrase or a passage, which 
is quoted or transcribed from the speaker or author in 
his own words ; and two commas in their direct position, 
are placed at the conclusion : as, 

" The proper study of mankind is man." 

Crotchets or Brackets [ ] serve to enclose a word or 
sentence, which is to be explained in a note, or the ex- 
pl.mation itself, or a word or sentence vyhich is intended 
to supply some deficiency, or to rectify some mistake. 



PUNCTUATION. 29$ 

An Index or Hanci IC?" points out a remarkable passage, 
o r something that requires particular attention. 

A Brace I is used in poetry at the end of a triplet or 

three lines which have the same rhyme. 

Braces are also used to connect a number of words with 
one common term, and are introduced to prevent a repe- 
tition in writing or printing. 

An Asterisk, or little star,* directs the reader to some 
note in the margin, or at the bottom of the page. Two 
or three asterisks generally denote the omission of some 
letters in a word, or of some bold or indelicate expression, 
or some defect in the manuscript. 

An Ellipsis is also used, when some letters in a 

word, or some words in a verse, are omitted : as, " The 
k— g," for " the king." 

An Obelisk, which is marked thus t? and Parallels 
thus I), together with the letters of the Alphabet, and 
figures, are used as references to the margin, or bottom 
of the pSge. 

CHAPTER VII. 



Directions respecting the use of 

CAPITAL letters. 

As the commencement of every sentence is distinguish- 
ed by a capital letter, and as capitals frequently occur in 
other parts of a sentence ; it is necessary to give you some 
directions respecting their proper application. 

It was formerly the custom to begin every noun with a 
capital : but as this practice was troublesome, and gave the 
writing or printing a crowded and confused appearance, it 
has been discontinued. It is, however, very proper to 
begin with a capital, 

1. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note,, 
or any other piece of writing. 

2. The first word after a period ; and, if the two sen- 
tences are totally indefiendentj after a note of interroga- 
tion or exclamation. 

But if a number of interrogative or exclamatory sen- 
tences, are thrown into one general group; or if the con- 
struction of the latter sentences depends on the former, 
all of them, except the first, may begin with a small letter : 



/ 

296 PUNCTUATION. 

as " How long, ye simple ones, will ye love sin^pjicuy , 
and the scorners delight in their scorning? and fools hate 
knowledge?" "Alas! how different! yet how like the 
same!" ^^ 

3. The appellations of the Deity: as, " God, Jehovah, 
the Almighty, the Supreme Being, the Lord, Providence, 
the Messiah, the Holy Spirit." 

^4. Proper names of persons, places, streets, mountains, 
rivers, ships: as, " George, York, the Strand, the Alps, 
the Thames, the Seahorse." 

5. Adjectives derived from the proper names of places : 
as, '* Grecian, Roman, English, French, and Italian." 

6. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a co- 
lon, or when it is in a direct form : as, "Always remem- 
ber this ancient maxim : ' Know thyself.' " " Our great 
lawgiver says,'* Take up thy cross daily, and follow me.' " 
But when a quotation is brought in obliquely after a com- 
ma, a capital is unnecessary : as, " Solomon observes, 
' that pride goes before destruction.' " 

The first word of an example may also very properly 
begin with a capital : as, " Temptation proves our virtue." 

7. Every substantive and principal word in the titles of 
books: as, "Johnson's Dictionary of the English Lan- 
guage;" " Thomson's Seasons;" " Rollin's AncientHis- 
tory." 

8. The first word of every line in poetry. 

9. The pronoun /, and the interjection O, are written 
in capitals : as, "T write :" " Hear, O earth !" 

Other words., besides the preceding, may begin with 
capitals, when tHcy are remarkably emphatical, or tlie 
principal subject of the composition. 



\CT' F(^^ Prosody^ and the Figures of Sjieech^ the learner 
IS referred to Conversations on Eiiglish Grammar, from 
7vhich this 4s abridged. 

FINIS. 



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